Abstract
This article presents the preliminary results of a qualitative exploratory study conducted between 2021 and 2023. This study was based on in-depth interviews with law enforcement agents and experts in gender and security, and document analysis. Using examples from Brazil, Colombia and Mexico, we aimed to analyze how stereotypes can shape gender bias, particularly regarding how women in middle and high-ranking positions in organized crime in the Americas outmaneuver law enforcement. We argue that women stereotypes, and gender bias may influence the capability of law enforcement agencies to prosecute and condemn Latin American women in middle and high-ranking positions in criminal organizations. Gender bias favors women, particularly in their perpetrators’ role, and has become a source of power, showing that Latin American women have agency, and act strategically within criminal organizations, since they are potentially less suspicious in the eyes of law enforcement agencies. This research contributes to shedding light on the currently existing blind spot on the role of Latin American women in organized crime in the Americas, and has policy implications. It is useful in fostering the implementation of state policies capable of including non-stereotypical women's role in organized crime.
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Notes
A relevant remark is that interviewees verbally provided their informed consent for the conversations to be recorded. In the case of law enforcement agents, the officials' anonymity was guaranteed as well as strict confidentiality. In fact, four additional interviews were conducted (to three law enforcement agents -two Brazilian, one Mexican- and a NGO leader from Brazil) but not used for this paper because we did not have permission to record them or reproduce the information shared with us.
Snowballing is a strategy used to access populations of difficult access. According to Vogt (2005: 300) Snowballing is a “technique for finding research subjects. One subject gives the researcher the name of another subject, who in turn provides the name of a third, and so on”.
In Latin America, we recognized different kinds of criminal structures such as gangs, clans, and national and regional criminal organizations. But, in our analysis, we do not include mafias, since they are not native but exported from the old word.
Buchona is a Latin American -especially Mexican- slang expression that refers to a narco-boss’ romantic partner. In general, they are associated with a very sexualized aesthetic: cartoonishly-curvy, wearing high-heels, tight-clothes, dramatic make-up, and expensive garments.
BBC News. Emma Coronel: Wife of kingpin El Chapo sentenced to three years. 30 November 2021. Available at: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-59484382 Accessed 01/09/2023.
Trocas is a Mexican slang for fancy 4 × 4 trucks, especially when referring to a narco-boss lifestyle.
Department of Justice. Wife of “El Chapo” Sentenced to Prison for Drug Trafficking and Money Laundering. 30 November 2021. Available at: https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/wife-el-chapo-sentenced-prison-drug-trafficking-and-money-laundering. Accessed 10/01/2023.
CNN Español. Emma Coronel, Esposa del Chapo Guzman, Sentenciada a 36 meses de prisión. 30 November 2021. Available at: https://cnnespanol.cnn.com/2021/11/30/emma-coronel-esposa-chapo-guzman-sentencia-36-meses-prision-orix/ Accessed 01/10/ 2023.
The New York Times. Emma Coronel Aispuro es sentenciada a tres años de prisión. 30 November 2021.. Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/es/2021/11/30/espanol/emma-coronel-sentencia.html. Accessed 01/05/2023.
In fact, Rosalinda, el Mencho’s wife, comes from a familia delincuencial (a criminal family), and has been raised in a narco-environment. For many, she is the one that has the real power—thanks to her family support- while El Mencho is the visible face of the criminal organization.
Unión Jalisco. Las mujeres del narco que se graduaron de la universidad. 23 January 2020. Available at: https://www.unionjalisco.mx/2020/01/23/las-mujeres-del-narco-que-se-graduaron-de-la-universidad/ Accessed 01/05/2023.
Fox News. 1st woman to run major drug cartel, 'La Jefa' Arellano Félix, named to U.S. Kingpin list. 1 January 2017. Available at.
https://www.foxnews.com/world/1st-woman-to-run-major-drug-cartel-la-jefa-arellano-felix-named-to-u-s-kingpin-list. Accessed 05/06/2023.
In fact, León Olvera (2022) marks Enedina as a clear example of a “low profile female narco boss”.
It seems also true that women are instrumental for criminal enterprises in their professional roles. Female accountants and lawyers are hired by criminal organizations because they are less suspicious and can use their female attributes to get better deals. A good example of that are the lawyers of the PCC, who can disguise their client’s activities behind an appearance of lawfulness and keep them below radar (Latin American Federal Prosecutor, Personal Communication 2022).
According to one of her University classmates -who would rather remain anonymous- cited in multiple press releases, her ostentation was suspicious, she looked like the relative or girlfriend of a narco. [A nosotros nos parecía sospechoso, tenía toda la imagen de ser pariente de narcos o novia de alguno porque era demasiada ostentación] See BBC Mundo, Ciudad de México. Sandra Ávila Beltrán: la reina que no era reina. 31 July 2013. Available at: Sandra Ávila Beltrán: la reina que no era reina—BBC News Mundo Accessed 06/15/2023.
A third example to illustrate this image could be that of Rosalinda Gonzalez Valencia, member of Los Cuinis Cartel, married afterwards to whom would become a leading figure of the Jalisco Nueva Generación Cartel (CJNG), “El Mencho”. The case of Rosalinda could be an interesting inversion of Cynthia’s situation, at least in the sense that it was her who held a higher position on the criminal structure due to family ties.
Revista Consultor Jurídico. Mulher de Marcola deve responder ação em liberdade. 29 June 2009. Available at: https://www.conjur.com.br/2009-jun-29/mulher-marcola-responder-processo-liberdade Accessed 02/01/2023.
Insight Crime. Prolífico lavador de dinero Dario Messer sentenciado en Brasil, suspendido en Paraguay. 14 June 2022. Available at:
https://es.insightcrime.org/noticias/prolifico-lavador-dario-messer-sentenciado-brasil-suspendido-paraguay/ Accessed 06/10/2023.
Sintonia Gral Fina is the name that PCC gives to the structure of the highest members of its organization.
Globo Rio Grande do Norte. 'Bibi Perigosa', presa no RJ por ataques no Rio Grande do Norte, estava foragida depois de romper tornozeleira eletrônica. 3 April 2023. Available at https://g1.globo.com/rn/rio-grande-do-norte/noticia/2023/04/03/bibi-perigosa-presa-no-rj-por-ataques-no-rio-grande-do-norte-estava-foragida-depois-romper-tornozeleira-eletronica.ghtml Accessed 06/15/2023.
Saiba Mas Agencia de Reportagem. Quem é “Bibi Perigosa”, presa no Rio de Janeiro suspeita de comandar ataques no RN. 3 April 2023. Available at https://saibamais.jor.br/2023/04/quem-e-bibi-perigosa-presa-no-rio-de-janeiro-suspeita-de-comandar-ataques-no-rn/ Accessed 06/16/2023.
Prensa Libre. “La Viuda Negra”: quién fue Griselda Blanco, la narcotraficante que introdujo a Pablo Escobar en el mundo del tráfico de drogas. 16 February 2022. Available at: https://www.prensalibre.com/internacional/la-viuda-negra-quien-fue-griselda-blanco-la-narcotraficante-que-introdujo-a-pablo-escobar-en-el-mundo-del-trafico-de-drogas/ Accessed 01/05 2023.
What is more, she is said to have designed special lingerie for women-mules made with secret compartments to smuggle drugs (Ortega 2022).
The murder case was built upon the testimony of one of Blanco’s hitmen: Jorge Ayala. However, Ayala’s credibility was undermined when it was revealed that he had been having phone sex with secretaries in the Prosecuting Attorney’s office; and the whole case went discredited after one of the women claimed that she was following orders from the Prosecutor. For further details, see Infobae. Griselda Blanco, la sanguinaria patrona del mal que guió a Pablo Escobar en su imperio narco. 29 July 2018. Available at: https://www.infobae.com/america/colombia/2018/07/27/griselda-blanco-la-sanguinaria-patrona-del-mal-que-guio-a-pablo-escobar-en-su-imperio-narco/ Accessed 01/05/2023.
One interesting point is that despite the fact that the figure of Rodríguez Lara seemed to contradict all the female stereotypes, she instrumentalized them for her own benefit, recruiting underage girls as hitmen. The aforementioned group was called “Las Cachorras”. For further details, refer to Al Momento. El proceso de Doña Lety sin resultado alguno. 9 June 2021. Available at https://almomento.mx/el-proceso-de-dona-lety-sin-resultado-alguno/ Accessed 06/10/2023.
La opinión. “Doña Lety”, la narcotraficante que fue aliada del Chapo y le declaró la guerra al Mencho. 28 December 2021. Available at: https://laopinion.com/2022/12/28/dona-lety-la-narcotraficante-que-fue-aliada-del-chapo-y-le-declaro-la-guerra-al-mencho/ Accessed 01/05/2023.
It was even attributed to her the order of shooting against the District Attorney Office in Cancun.
Milenio. Cae en Puebla 'Doña Lety', acusada de liderar narco en Cancún. 9 August 2017. Available at: https://www.milenio.com/policia/cae-puebla-dona-lety-acusada-liderar-narco-cancun Accessed 01/15/2023.
Nevertheless, it is difficult to attribute this acquittal to gender bias, as there have been allegations of corruption.
Those stereotypes are ingrained throughout Latin American societies. For example, a survey conducted in 2009 across 18 different countries revealed that 34% of the interviewees agreed that the women should remain at home and the men should be the sole provider. The results of the survey are presented in ISOQuito (2022).
Colombian data is not presented to further support this argument because it was not possible to access open data on Criminal Justice and Security disaggregated by gender.
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Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Dr. Isabella Alcañiz, Director of the Latin American and Caribbean Studies Center (LACS) of the University of Maryland, for the recommendations, comments, and feedback. We would also like to thank the interviewees for their time and willingness to share information with us.
Funding
Ford Foundation—Latin American Studies Association, FORD–LASA (Latin American Studies Association) Special Projects, Carolina Sampó, Grant #FL-17-02, Carolina Sampó, 2022–2023, Carolina Sampó
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Sampó, C., Troncoso, V. & Paparini, A. Evading Law Enforcement in the Americas: Latin American women in organized crime. Trends Organ Crim (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12117-023-09523-z
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12117-023-09523-z