Abstract
The recent subsidence at Joshimath in the Indian State of Uttarakhand led to the displacement of thousands of residents. Large cracks developed in the buildings and on the ground. No extensive and comprehensive deformation measurement of this event has been made. In this study, we use both PS and PSDS InSAR time series to investigate the magnitude, spatiotemporal as well as kinematic evolution of this slow-moving landslide. Eighty-seven ascending Sentinel-1 scenes with a temporal baseline of 1056 days from 2020 to 2023 were stacked for interferometric analysis. StaMPS is employed to identify PS points by their amplitude and phase information. TomoSAR is utilized to stipulate a coherence matrix to form a dense PSDS network of interferograms to surge point density for suitable phase unwrapping. PS and DS points are coupled to develop slope velocity maps revealing mean displacement rates of –84 mm for PS and –107 mm for PSDS, respectively. Cross-section profiles drawn on the slopes of subsidence show target scatterers on CS1, CS2 and CS4, yield a cumulative displacement of 400 mm in the last 3 years. CS3 and CS5 show a total displacement of about 350 mm. This study applies PSDS time-series InSAR to decipher ground movement in traditionally decohered environments. It also seeks to establish the boundaries and intensity of subsidence to aid in the mitigation of failure progression.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
900 members of 29 families displaced in Joshimath land subsidence, says State Disaster Management Secretary – The Hindu; https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/900-members-of-29-families-displaced-in-joshimath-land-subsidence-says-state-disaster-management-secretary/article66413601.ece.
Agarwal S, Kumar V, Kumar S, Sundriyal Y, Bagri D S, Chauhan N, Kaushik S, Khan F and Rana N 2023 Identifying potential hotspots of land use/land cover change in the last 3 decades, Uttarakhand, NW Himalaya.
Aslan G, Foumelis M, Raucoules D, De Michele M, Bernardie S and Cakir Z 2020 Landslide mapping and monitoring using persistent scatterer interferometry (PSI) technique in the French Alps; Rem. Sens. 12(8) 1305.
Awasthi A K, Tabatabaei S H, Singh B and Mehrotra G S 1995 Terrain attributes and drainage texture as indicators of landslide occurrence in a part of Garhwal Himalaya, India; J. Nepal Geol. Soc. 11 289–298.
Barnard P L, Owen L A, Sharma M C and Finkel R C 2001 Natural and human-induced landsliding in the Garhwal Himalaya of northern India; Geomorphology 40(1–2) 21–35.
Bekaert D P, Walters R J, Wright T J, Hooper A J and Parker D J 2015 Statistical comparison of InSAR tropospheric correction techniques; Rem. Sen. Environ. 170 40–47, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSE.2015.08.035.
Bekaert D P, Handwerger A L, Agram P and Kirschbaum D B 2020 InSAR-based detection method for mapping and monitoring slow-moving landslides in remote regions with steep and mountainous terrain: An application to Nepal; Rem. Sen. Environ. 249 111983.
Berardino P, Fornaro G, Lanari R and Sansosti E 2002 A new algorithm for surface deformation monitoring based on small baseline differential SAR interferograms; IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 40(11) 2375–2383, https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2002.803792.
Bisht M P and Rautela P 2010 Disaster looms large over Joshimath; Curr. Sci. 98(10) 1271.
Bürgmann R, Rosen P A and Fielding E J 2000 Synthetic aperture radar interferometry to measure Earth’s surface topography and its deformation; Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 28(1) 169–209, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.169.
Chadha R K 2023 2022 Joshimath subsidence; J. Geol. Soc. India 99(2).
Chauhan S, Sharma M and Arora M K 2010 Landslide susceptibility zonation of the Chamoli region, Garhwal Himalayas, using logistic regression model; Landslides 7 411–423, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-010-0202-3.
Chen L, Liu P, Liao W, Zhang K, He F and Zeng L 2020 Regional-scale detection of unrecorded landslides in mountainous terrains by using interferometric stacking technique; IOP Con. Series: Earth Environ. Sci. 570(4), https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/570/4/042052.
Dai Keren, Deng Jin, Xu Qiang, Li Zhenhong Li, Shi Xianlin Shi, Hancock Craig, Wen Ningling, Zhang Lele and Zhou Guanchen 2022 Interpretation and sensitivity analysis of the InSAR line of sight displacements in landslide measurement; GISci. Rem. Sens. 59(1) 1226–1242.
Devrani R and Singh V 2014 Evolution of valley-fill terraces in the Alaknanda Valley, NW Himalaya: Its implication on river response studies; Geomorphology 227 112–122, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.04.030.
Dong J, Zhang L, Tang M, Liao M, Xu Q, Gong J and Ao M 2018 Mapping landslide surface displacements with time series SAR interferometry by combining persistent and distributed scatterers: A case study of Jiaju landslide in Danba, China; Rem. Sens. Environ. 205 180–198, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2017.11.022.
Even M and Schulz K 2018 InSAR deformation analysis with distributed scatterers: A review complemented by new advances; Rem. Sens. 10(5) 744, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10050744.
Ferretti A, Prati C and Rocca F 2001 Permanent scatterers in SAR interferometry; IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 39(1) 8–20.
Fiorucci F, Cardinali M, Carlà R, Rossi M, Mondini A C, Santurri L, Ardizzone F and Guzzetti F 2011 Seasonal landslide mapping and estimation of landslide mobilization rates using aerial and satellite images; Geomorphology 129(1–2) 59–70, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2011.01.013.
Foumelis M, Blasco J M, Desnos Y L, Engdahl M, Fernández D, Veci L, Lu J and Wong C 2018 ESA SNAP-StaMPS integrated processing for Sentinel-1 persistent scatterer interferometry; IGARSS 2018-2018 IEEE Intern. Geosci. and Rem. Sens. Symp., pp. 1364–1367.
Fresh cracks appear on road between Joshimath and Badrinath ahead of Char Dham Yatra – The Hindu; https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/fresh-cracks-appear-on-road-between-joshimath-and-badrinath-ahead-of-char-dham-yatra/article66532181.ece.
Gerrard J 1994 The landslide hazard in the Himalayas: Geological control and human action; Geomorphology 10 221–230.
Hanssen R 2001 Radar interferometry: Data interpretation and error analysis; Vol. 2, Springer Science and Business Media.
Ho Tong Minh D and Ngo Y N 2022 Compressed SAR interferometry in the big data era; Rem. Sens. 14(2) 390, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14020390.
Ho Tong Minh D, NGO Y, Lê T T, Le T C, Bui H S, Vuong Q V and Le Toan T 2020 Quantifying horizontal and vertical movements in Ho Chi Minh City by Sentinel-1 Radar Interferometry; Preprints 2020, 2020120382.
Hooper A 2006 Persistent scatterer radar interferometry for crustal deformation studies and modeling of volcanic deformation; J. Geol. Res. 112 B07407.
Hooper A and Zebker H 2007 Phase unwrapping in three dimensions with application to InSAR time series; J. Opt. Soc. Am. 24(9) 2737–2747.
Hooper A, Zebker H, Segall P and Kampes B 2004 A new method for measuring deformation on volcanoes and other natural terrains using InSAR persistent scatterers; Geol. Res. Lett. 31(23), https://doi.org/10.1029/2004GL021737.
Hooper A, Bekaert D, Spaans K and Arıkan M 2012 Recent advances in SAR interferometry time series analysis for measuring crustal deformation; Tectonophys. 514 1–3, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2011.10.013.
Hussain M A, Chen Z, Wang R and Shoaib M 2021 PS-InSAR-based validated landslide susceptibility mapping along Karakorum highway, Pakistan; Rem. Sen. 13(20), https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13204129.
Ives Jack D and Bruno M 2001 The Himalayan dilemma: Reconciling development and conservation; Psychol. Press, Routledge, 329p.
Jain A K, Shreshtha M, Seth P, Kanyal L, Carosi R, Montomoli C, Iaccarino S, Mukherjee P K, Law R, Singh S and Rai S M 2014 The Higher Himalayan Crystallines, Alaknanda–Dhauli Ganga Valleys, Garhwal Himalaya, India; J. Virtual Expl. 47 8.
Jennifer J J, Saravanan S and Pradhan B 2022 Persistent scatterer interferometry in the post-event monitoring of the Idukki landslides; Geocarto Int. 37(5) 1514–1528, https://doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2020.1778101.
Joshimath sinking? Panic grips Uttarakhand town as houses develop deep cracks | The Indian Express|; https://indianexpress.com/photos/india-news/uttarakhand-town-joshimath-houses-develop-deep-cracks-8366102/.
Joshimath: What’s the future of India’s sinking Himalayan town? – BBC News; https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-64369752.
Kanungo D P and Sharma S 2014 Rainfall thresholds for prediction of shallow landslides around Chamoli–Joshimath region, Garhwal Himalayas, India; Landslides 11(4) 629–638, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-013-0438-9.
Lacroix P, Gavillon T, Bouchant C, Lavé J, Mugnier J L, Dhungel S and Vernier F 2022 SAR and optical images correlation illuminates post-seismic landslide motion after the Mw 7.8 Gorkha earthquake (Nepal); Sci. Rep. 12(1) 6266, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-10016-2.
Lundgren P, Usai S, Sansosti E, Lanari R, Tesauro M, Fornaro G and Berardino P 2001 Modeling surface deformation observed with synthetic aperture radar interferometry at Campi Flegrei caldera; J. Geol. Res. Solid Earth 106(B9) 19355–19366, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001jb000194.
Mey J, Guntu R K, Plakias A, Silva de Almeida I and Schwanghart W 2023 More than one landslide per road kilometre – surveying and modelling mass movements along the Rishikesh–Joshimath (NH-7) highway, Uttarakhand, India; Nat. Haz. Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-2022-295.
Nawani P C 2015 Groundwater ingress in head race tunnel of Tapovan: Vishnugad hydroelectric project in Higher Himalaya, India; Engineering Geology for Society and Territory – Volume 6, Applied Geology for Major Engineering Projects, pp. 941–945, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-09060-3_171.
Notti D, Herrera G, Bianchini S, Meisina C, García-Davalillo J C and Zucca F 2014 A methodology for improving landslide PSI data analysis; Int. J. Rem. Sens. 35(6) 2186–2214, https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2014.889864.
Panikkar S V and Subramanyan V 1996 A geomorphic evaluation of the landslides around Dehradun and Mussoorie, Uttar Pradesh, India; Geomorphology 15(2) 169–181.
Prashant R, Tomar V, Singh S and Aniruddh Singh 2023 A hydrogeological investigation report on land subsidence in Joshimath Town, Chamoli District, Uttarakhand; CGWB, Dep. of Water Resour., River Dev. and Ganga Rejuv., Min. of Jal Shakti, Govt of India, Dehradun.
Ray L, Bhattacharya A and Roy S 2007 Thermal conductivity of higher Himalayan crystallines from Garhwal Himalaya, India; Tectonophys. 434(1–4) 71–79, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2007.02.003.
Rehman M U, Zhang Y, Meng X, Su X, Catani F, Rehman G, Yue D, Khalid Z, Ahmad S and Ahmad I 2020 Analysis of landslide movements using interferometric synthetic aperture radar: A case study in Hunza–Nagar Valley, Pakistan; Rem. Sens. 12(12) 2054, https://doi.org/10.3390/RS12122054.
Roy P, Martha T R, Khanna K, Jain N and Kumar K V 2022 Time and path prediction of landslides using InSAR and flow model; Rem. Sens. Environ. 271 112899, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2022.112899.
Saha A K, Gupta R P and Arora M K 2002 GIS-based landslide hazard zonation in the Bhagirathi (Ganga) valley, Himalayas; Int. J. Rem. Sens. 23(2) 357–369, https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160010014260.
Sati S P and Gahalaut V K 2013 The fury of the floods in the north-west Himalayan region: The Kedarnath tragedy; Geom. Nat. Haz. Risk 4(3) 193–201, https://doi.org/10.1080/19475705.2013.827135.
Siddique T, Haris P M and Pradhan S P 2022 Unraveling the geological and meteorological interplay during the 2021 Chamoli disaster, India; Nat. Haz. Res. 2(2) 75–83, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nhres.2022.04.003.
Srivastava H B and Tripathy N R 2005 Shear zone structures from the Main Central Thrust Zone of the Joshimath area, Garhwal Himalaya; Paleont. Soc. India, Spec. Publ. 2 53–64.
Uttarakhand cabinet approves compensation policy for affected families in Joshimath | India News, The Indian Express; https://indianexpress.com/article/india/uttarakhand-cabinet-approves-compensation-policy-for-affected-families-in-joshimath-8447482/.
Verma S, Sharma A, Yadava P K, Gupta P, Singh J and Payra S 2022 Rapid flash flood calamity in Chamoli, Uttarakhand region during Feb 2021: An analysis based on satellite data; Nat. Haz. 112(2) 1379–1393, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-022-05232-y.
Vöge M, Frauenfelder R, Ekseth K, Arora M K, Bhattacharya A and Basin R K 2015 The use of SAR interferometry for landslide mapping in the Indian Himalayas; Int. Arch. Photog. Rem. Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci. 40 857–863, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprsarchives-XL-7-W3-857-2015.
Yao J, Yao X and Liu X 2022 Landslide detection and mapping based on SBAS-InSAR and PS-InSAR: A case study in Gongjue County, Tibet, China; Rem. Sens. 14(19) 4728, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14194728.
Zhang L, Dai K, Deng J, Ge D, Liang R, Li W and Xu Q 2021 Identifying potential landslides by stacking-InSAR in southwestern China and its performance comparison with SBAS-InSAR; Rem. Sens. 13(18) 3662, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13183662.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for providing the SRTM data and the European Space Agency (ESA) and Alaska Satellite Facility (ASF) for providing free access to Sentinel-1 SAR imagery. We would like to extend our gratitude to Andrew Hooper for keeping StaMPS in the public domain. We would also like to thank Jose Manuel Delgado Blasco for snap2stamps. We would also like to acknowledge and appreciate Dinh Ho Tong Minh for developing and providing the public TomoSAR package.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Asrar Ahmad Rather: Original manuscript drafting, conceptualization, methodology, analysis and interpretation. Syed Kaiser Bukhari: Formal visualization, supervision, review and editing.
Corresponding author
Additional information
Communicated by Saumitra Mukherjee
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Rather, A.A., Bukhari, S.K. Understanding Joshimath landslide using PS interferometry and PSDS InSAR. J Earth Syst Sci 133, 93 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-024-02312-4
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-024-02312-4