Abstract
Red beetroot extract is a widely used food colorant. Betalain is the major red pigment present in it, which is unstable at high temperature and pH. In this study, the edge of nanoemulsion over microemulsion in improving the thermal and pH stability of betalain has been demonstrated. The micro- and nanoemulsions of beet extract were prepared by rotor-stator homogenization and rotor-stator homogenization followed by ultrasonication, respectively. The resultant emulsions were compared for their physicochemical and rheological properties, storage stability (for 15 days, at refrigeration temperature: 4 ± 1 °C; room temperature: 30 ± 5 °C; 40 °C and 100 °C), and release kinetics. Compared to microemulsion, nanoemulsion resulted in a sustained release and higher thermal and pH stabilities of betalain. During storage, nanoemulsion showed a lower rate of droplet coarsening and improved color stability than microemulsion, due to its nanoscale droplet diameter (701.53 ± 27.2 nm), high viscosity (0.089 Pa s, at 100 s−1), and non-Newtonian rheological behavior.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adjonu, R., Doran, G., Torley, P., & Agboola, S. (2014). Formation of whey protein isolate hydrolysate stabilised nanoemulsion. Food Hydrocolloids, 41, 169–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2014.04.007.
Alliod, O., Messager, L., Fessi, H., Dupin, D., & Charcosset, C. (2019). Influence of viscosity for oil-in-water and water-in-oil nanoemulsions production by SPG premix membrane emulsification. Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 142, 87–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2018.11.027.
Amer, S. A., Osman, A., Al-Gabri, N. A., Elsayed, S. A. M., Abd El-Rahman, G. I., Elabbasy, M. T., Ahmed, S. A. A., & Ibrahim, R. E. (2019). The effect of dietary replacement of fish meal with whey protein concentrate on the growth performance, fish health, and immune status of Nile tilapia fingerlings, Oreochromis niloticus. Animals, 9(12), 1003 (1-22). https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9121003.
Anandharamakrishnan, C. (2008). Experimental and computational fluid dynamics studies on spray-freeze-drying and spray-drying of proteins (Doctoral dissertation, Loughborough University, United Kingdom).
Antigo, J. L. D., Bergamasco, R. D. C., & Madrona, G. S. (2018). Effect of pH on the stability of red beet extract (Beta vulgaris L.) microcapsules produced by spray drying or freeze drying. Food Science and Technology, 38(1), 72–77. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-457x.34316.
Anton, N., & Vandamme, T. F. (2011). Nano-emulsions and micro-emulsions: clarifications of the critical differences. Pharmaceutical Research, 28(5), 978–985. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11095-010-0309-1.
Aswathanarayan, J. B., & Vittal, R. R. (2019). Nanoemulsions and their potential applications in food industry. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 3, 95. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2019.00095.
Baboota, S., Shakeel, F., Ahuja, A., Ali, J., & Shafiq, S. (2007). Design development and evaluation of novel nanoemulsion formulations for transdermal potential of Celecoxib. Acta Pharmaceutica, 57(3), 315–332. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10007-007-0025-5.
Badii, F., Martinet, C., Mitchell, J. R., & Farhat, I. A. (2006). Enthalpy and mechanical relaxation of glassy gelatin films. Food Hydrocolloids, 20(6), 879–884. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2005.08.010.
Baysan, U., Yıldırım, A., Takma, K. D., & Koç, M. (2019). Physical and chemical stability of sweet walnut oil emulsion: Influence of homogenization conditions and stabilizer ratio. Journal of Food Process Engineering, 42(1), e12945. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.12945.
Bhandari, B. R., Senoussi, A., Dumoulin, E. D., & Lebert, A. (1993). Spray drying of concentrated fruit juices. Drying Technology, 11(5), 1081–1092. https://doi.org/10.1080/07373939308916884.
Bligh, E. G., & Dyer, W. J. (1959). A rapid method of total lipid extraction and purification. Canadian Journal of Biochemistry and Physiology, 37(8), 900–917. https://doi.org/10.1139/o59-099.
Cai, Y., Sun, M., Wu, H., Huang, R., & Corke, H. (1998). Characterization and quantification of betacyanin pigments from diverse Amaranthus species. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 46(6), 2063–2070. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf9709966.
Cejudo-Bastante, M. J., Hurtado, N., Delgado, A., & Heredia, F. J. (2016). Impact of pH and temperature on the colour and betalain content of Colombian yellow pitaya peel (Selenicereus megalanthus). Journal of Food Science and Technology, 53(5), 2405–2413. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-016-2215-y.
Chandran, J., Nisha, P., Singhal, R. S., & Pandit, A. B. (2014). Degradation of colour in beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.): a kinetics study. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 51(10), 2678–2684. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-012-0741-9.
Chantrapornchai, W., Clydesdale, F., & McClements, D. J. (1998). Influence of droplet size and concentration on the color of oil-in-water emulsions. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 46(8), 2914–2920.
Commission Directive. (2008). Commission Directive 2008/128/EC of 22 December 2008, laying down specific purity criteria concerning colours for use in foodstuffs.
Comunian, T. A., Ravanfar, R., Alcaine, S. D., & Abbaspourrad, A. (2018). Water-in-oil-in-water emulsion obtained by glass microfluidic device for protection and heat-triggered release of natural pigments. Food Research International, 106, 945–951. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2018.02.008.
Dammak, I., & do Amaral Sobral, P. J. (2017). Formulation and stability characterization of rutin-loaded oil-in-water emulsions. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 926–939. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-017-1876-5.
Dias, M. I., Ferreira, I. C., & Barreiro, M. F. (2015). Microencapsulation of bioactives for food applications. Food & Function, 6(4), 1035–1052. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4fo01175a.
do Carmo, E. L., Teodoro, R. A. R., Félix, P. H. C., de Barros Fernandes, R. V., de Oliveira, É. R., Veiga, T. R. L. A., & Botrel, D. A. (2018). Stability of spray-dried beetroot extract using oligosaccharides and whey proteins. Food Chemistry, 249, 51–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.12.076.
Drdák, M., & Vallová, M. (1990). Kinetics of the thermal degradation of betanine. Food/Nahrung, 34(4), 307–310. https://doi.org/10.1002/food.19900340402.
Eisinaite, V., Juraite, D., Schroën, K., & Leskauskaite, D. (2016). Preparation of stable food-grade double emulsions with a hybrid premix membrane emulsification system. Food Chemistry, 206, 59–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.03.046.
Eisinaite, V., Juraite, D., Schroën, K., & Leskauskaite, D. (2017). Food-grade double emulsions as effective fat replacers in meat systems. Journal of Food Engineering, 213, 54–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2017.05.022.
Esteban, B., Riba, J. R., Baquero, G., Puig, R., & Rius, A. (2012). Characterization of the surface tension of vegetable oils to be used as fuel in diesel engines. Fuel, 102, 231–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2012.07.042.
Flanagan, J., & Singh, H. (2006). Microemulsions: a potential delivery system for bioactives in food. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 46(3), 221–237. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408690590956710.
Frascareli, E. C., Silva, V. M., Tonon, R. V., & Hubinger, M. D. (2012). Effect of process conditions on the microencapsulation of coffee oil by spray drying. Food and Bioproducts Processing, 90(3), 413–424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbp.2011.12.002.
Galaffu, N., Bortlik, K., & Michel, M. (2015). An industry perspective on natural food colour stability. In M. J. Scotter (Ed.), Colour additives for foods and beverages (pp. 91–130). Amsterdam: Woodhead Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-78242-011-8.00005-2.
Galvão, K. C. S., Vicente, A. A., & Sobral, P. J. A. (2018). Development, characterization, and stability of O/W pepper nanoemulsions produced by high-pressure homogenization. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 11(2), 355–367. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-017-2016-y.
Gurdeniz, G., Tokatli, F., & Ozen, B. (2007). Differentiation of mixtures of monovarietal olive oils by mid-infrared spectroscopy and chemometrics. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology, 109(12), 1194–1202. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejlt.200700087.
Halwani, A. F., Sindi, H. A., & Jambi, H. A. (2018). Characterization of physical properties of red beet pigments. Journal of Biochemical Technology, 9(2), 16.
Hanazawa, T., & Murray, B. S. (2014). The influence of oil droplets on the phase separation of protein–polysaccharide mixtures. Food Hydrocolloids, 34, 128–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2012.11.025.
Harwansh, R. K., Patra, K. C., Pareta, S. K., Singh, J., & Rahman, M. A. (2011). Nanoemulsions as vehicles for transdermal delivery of glycyrrhizin. Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 47(4), 769–778. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1984-82502011000400014.
Havlíková, L., Miková, K., & Kyzlink, V. (1983). Heat stability of betacyanins. Zeitschrift für Lebensmittel-Untersuchung und -Forschung, 177(4), 247–250. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01082487.
Herbach, K. M., Stintzing, F. C., & Carle, R. (2004). Impact of thermal treatment on color and pigment pattern of red beet (Beta vulgaris L.) preparations. Journal of Food Science, 69(6), C491–C498. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2004.tb10994.x.
Herbach, K. M., Stintzing, F. C., & Carle, R. (2006). Betalain stability and degradation—structural and chromatic aspects. Journal of Food Science, 71(4), R41–R50. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-3841.2006.00022.x.
Herbach, K. M., Maier, C., Stintzing, F. C., & Carle, R. (2007). Effects of processing and storage on juice colour and betacyanin stability of purple pitaya (Hylocereus polyrhizus) juice. European Food Research and Technology, 224(5), 649–658. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-006-0354-5.
Huck-Iriart, C., Rincón-Cardona, J. A., & Herrera, M. L. (2014). Stability of whey protein concentrate/sunflower oil emulsions as affected by sucrose and xanthan gum. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 7(9), 2646–2656. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-014-1290-1.
Huimin, X., Lin, L., Shilin, G., Elfalleh, W., Shenghua, H., Qinghai, S., & Ying, M. (2014). Formation, stability, and properties of an algae oil emulsion for application in UHT milk. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 7(2), 567–574. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-013-1054-3.
Janiszewska, E. (2014). Microencapsulated beetroot juice as a potential source of betalain. Powder Technology, 264, 190–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2014.05.032.
Jiang, S., Yildiz, G., Ding, J., Andrade, J., Rababahb, T. M., Almajwalc, A., Abulmeatyc, M. M., & Feng, H. (2019). Pea protein nanoemulsion and nanocomplex as carriers for protection of cholecalciferol (vitamin D3). Food and Bioprocess Technology, 12(6), 1031–1040. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-019-02276-0.
Kaimainen, M., Marze, S., Järvenpää, E., Anton, M., & Huopalahti, R. (2015). Encapsulation of betalain into w/o/w double emulsion and release during in vitro intestinal lipid digestion. LWT Food Science and Technology, 60(2), 899–904. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2014.10.016.
Karthik, P., & Anandharamakrishnan, C. (2016). Enhancing omega-3 fatty acids nanoemulsion stability and in-vitro digestibility through emulsifiers. Journal of Food Engineering, 187, 92–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2016.05.003.
Khan, M. I. (2016). Stabilization of betalains: a review. Food Chemistry, 197, 1280–1285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.11.043.
Kher, A., Udabage, P., McKinnon, I., McNaughton, D., & Augustin, M. A. (2007). FTIR investigation of spray-dried milk protein concentrate powders. Vibrational Spectroscopy, 44(2), 375–381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vibspec.2007.03.006.
Kumar, R., Kaur, K., Uppal, S., & Mehta, S. K. (2017). Ultrasound processed nanoemulsion: a comparative approach between resveratrol and resveratrol cyclodextrin inclusion complex to study its binding interactions, antioxidant activity and UV light stability. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 37, 478–489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2017.02.004.
Liu, Q., Huang, H., Chen, H., Lin, J., & Wang, Q. (2019). Food-grade nanoemulsions: preparation, stability and application in encapsulation of bioactive compounds. Molecules, 24(23), 4242. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24234242.
Masih, D., Singh, N., & Singh, A. (2019). Red beetroot: a source of natural colourant and antioxidants: a review. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 8(4), 162–166.
Maskan, M. (2003). Change in colour and rheological behaviour of sunflower seed oil during frying and after adsorbent treatment of used oil. European Food Research and Technology, 218(1), 20–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-003-0807-z.
Masuccii, S.F., & Little, C. (2017). Emulsion stability basics. Processing Solutions for the Food Processing Industries. https://www.processingmagazine.com/mixing-blending-size-reduction/article/15586907/emulsion-stability-basics. Accessed on May 22, 2020.
McClements, D. J. (2002). Colloidal basis of emulsion color. Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science, 7(5–6), 451–455. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-0294(02)00075-4.
McClements, D. J., & Rao, J. (2011). Food-grade nanoemulsions: formulation, fabrication, properties, performance, biological fate, and potential toxicity. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 51(4), 285–330. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2011.559558.
Moriano, M. E., & Alamprese, C. (2020). Whey protein concentrate and egg white powder as structuring agents of double emulsions for food applications. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 13(7), 1154–1165. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-020-02467-0.
Mourtzinos, I., Papadakis, S. E., Igoumenidis, P., & Karathanos, V. T. (2011). Encapsulation of Melissa officinalis leaf's active compounds in β-cyclodextrin and modified starch. Procedia Food Science, 1, 1679–1685. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.profoo.2011.09.248.
O’Regan, J., & Mulvihill, D. M. (2010). Sodium caseinate–maltodextrin conjugate stabilized double emulsions: encapsulation and stability. Food Research International, 43(1), 224–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2009.09.031.
Pagano, A. P. E., Khalid, N., Kobayashi, I., Nakajima, M., Neves, M. A., & Bastos, E. L. (2018). Microencapsulation of betanin in monodisperse W/O/W emulsions. Food Research International, 109, 489–496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2018.04.053.
Patino, J. M. R., & Pilosof, A. M. (2011). Protein–polysaccharide interactions at fluid interfaces. Food Hydrocolloids, 25(8), 1925–1937. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2011.02.023.
Pitalua, E., Jimenez, M., Vernon-Carter, E. J., & Beristain, C. I. (2010). Antioxidative activity of microcapsules with beetroot juice using gum Arabic as wall material. Food and Bioproducts Processing, 88(2–3), 253–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbp.2010.01.002.
Polychniatou, V., & Tzia, C. (2016). Study of the emulsifying ability of olive oil endogenous compounds in co-surfactant free olive oil w/o nanoemulsions with food grade non-ionic surfactants. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 9(5), 882–891. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-015-1668-8.
Reddy, P. M. N., Padma Ishwarya, S., & Anandharamakrishnan, C. (2019). Nanoencapsulation of roasted coffee bean oil in whey protein wall system through nanospray drying. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 43(3), e13893. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.13893.
Rodríguez-Sánchez, J. A., Victoria, M. T. C., & Barragán-Huerta, B. E. (2017). Betaxanthins and antioxidant capacity in Stenocereus pruinosus: stability and use in food. Food Research International, 91, 63–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2016.11.023.
Rohman, A., & Che Man, Y. B. (2012). Quantification and classification of corn and sunflower oils as adulterants in olive oil using chemometrics and FTIR spectra. The Scientific World Journal, 2012, 250795, 6 pages. https://doi.org/10.1100/2012/250795.
Salvia-Trujillo, L., Rojas-Graü, A., Soliva-Fortuny, R., & Martín-Belloso, O. (2013). Physicochemical characterization of lemongrass essential oil–alginate nanoemulsions: effect of ultrasound processing parameters. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 6(9), 2439–2446. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-012-0881-y.
Schliemann, W., & Strack, D. (1998). Intramolecular stabilization of acylated betacyanins. Phytochemistry, 49(2), 585–588. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(98)00047-8.
Sengupta, D., Mondal, B., & Mukherjee, K. (2015). Visible light absorption and photo-sensitizing properties of spinach leaves and beetroot extracted natural dyes. Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy, 148, 85–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2015.03.120.
Shanmugam, A., & Ashokkumar, M. (2014). Ultrasonic preparation of stable flax seed oil emulsions in dairy systems–physicochemical characterization. Food Hydrocolloids, 39, 151–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2014.01.006.
Shantha, N., & C., & Decker, E.A. (1994). Rapid, Sensitive, Iron-Based Spectrophotometric Methods for Determination of Peroxide Values of Food Lipids. Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL, 77(2), 421–424. https://doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/77.2.421.
Singh, R. P., & Heldman, D. R. (2014). Introduction to Food Engineering (5th ed.). London: Academic Press (Imprint of Elsevier).
Tolman, R. C. (1949). The effect of droplet size on surface tension. The Journal of Chemical Physics, 17(3), 333–337. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1747247.
van der Schaaf, U. S., & Karbstein, H. P. (2018). Fabrication of nanoemulsions by rotor-stator emulsification. In S. M. Jafari & D. J. McClements (Eds.), Nanoemulsions formulation, applications, and characterization (pp. 141–174). London: Academic Press.
Wohlfarth, C. (2008). Surface tension of pure liquids and binary liquid mixtures: (supplement to IV/16). Berlin, Heidelberg.
Yamauchi, K., Shimizu, M., & Kamiya, T. (1980). Emulsifying properties of whey protein. Journal of Food Science, 45(5), 1237–1242. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2002.tb11369.x.
Zarena, A. S., Bhattacharya, S., & Kadimi, U. S. (2012). Mangosteen oil-in-water emulsions: rheology, creaming, and microstructural characteristics during storage. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 5(8), 3007–3013. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-011-0695-3.
Zhang, L. W., Al-Suwayeh, S. A., Hung, C. F., Chen, C. C., & Fang, J. Y. (2011). Oil components modulate the skin delivery of 5-aminolevulinic acid and its ester prodrug from oil-in-water and water-in-oil nanoemulsions. International Journal of Nanomedicine, 6, 693–704. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S17524.
Züge, L. C. B., Haminiuk, C. W. I., Maciel, G. M., Silveira, J. L. M., & de Paula Scheer, A. (2013). Catastrophic inversion and rheological behavior in soy lecithin and Tween 80 based food emulsions. Journal of Food Engineering, 116(1), 72–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2012.12.008.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Review
This study does not involve any human or animal testing.
Additional information
Sources of images appearing in graphical abstract:
https://www.freepik.com/free-photos-vectors/background (Photo of beetroot in graphical abstract); created by freepik - www.freepik.com</a>
Hussain, A.E., Sadiq, Z. & Zia-Ul-Haq, M. (2018). Betalains: Biomolecular Aspects (Chapter 3: Chemistry of Betalains). Cham: Springer, pp. 33-56. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95624-4_3.
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mohammed, A.N., Ishwarya, S.P. & Nisha, P. Nanoemulsion Versus Microemulsion Systems for the Encapsulation of Beetroot Extract: Comparison of Physicochemical Characteristics and Betalain Stability. Food Bioprocess Technol 14, 133–150 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-020-02562-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-020-02562-2