Abstract
The Indus river basin (IRB) is one of the most depleted water basins globally, having significant challenges for its water sector. Monitoring of stable isotope composition (δ18O and δ2H) across IRB is a critical aspect that can provide deeper insights for investigating complex hydrological processes. This work analyses the spatial pattern of the isotopic signature using a comprehensive compilation of available datasets of the Global Network of Isotopes in River (GNIR) and Global Network of Isotopes in Precipitation (GNIP), along with the previously published isotopic studies in the Indus basin. Additionally, this work provides a detailed comparison of the isotopic signature of the Upper Indus Basin (UIB), and Lower Indus Basin (LIB). The IRBs water line was found to be δ2H = 7.89 × δ18O + 13.51, which shows a close similarity with the Global Meteoric Water Line (GMWL), indicating the meteoric origin of the water with insignificant secondary evaporation prevailing across the basin. The Main Indus Channel (MIC) river water line (δ2H = 8.88 × δ18O + 26.05) indicates a major contribution from the meteoric origin (precipitation/rain) of water (Indian summer monsoon) with minimal effect of evaporation processes. The water line for UIB samples, (δ2H = 7.88 × δ18O + 11.94) was found to be moderately higher in slope than LIB samples (δ2H = 7.17 × δ18O + 7.16). However, the slopes of both UIB and LIB river water lines closely approached the slope of GMWL and were consistent with the slope of IRB water line, which indicates similarity in contribution of water sources. The higher slope and intercept in UIB suggest that meteoric water sources contributed to streamflow viz. from snow/glacier with insignificant evapotranspiration, which is also validated by the scarce vegetation cover in the UIB. However, the lower slope and intercept in LIB suggest stream water contribution from significantly evaporated groundwater and precipitation with a complete homogenization of discharge coming from the UIB. Results substantiate that distinct isotopic signatures found in different stretches of the IRB and along the MIC are caused by variations in basin characteristics, hydro-meteorological processes, water mixing, and minor influence of anthropogenic variables.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ahluwalia RS, Rai SP, Jain SK, et al. (2015) Estimation of snow/glacier melt contribution in the upper part of the Beas River basin, Himachal Pradesh, using conventional and SNOWMOD modeling approach. J Water Clim Chang 6(4): 880–890. https://doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2015.107
Ahmad M, Latif Z, Tariq JA, et al. (2012) Isotope investigations of major rivers of Indus Basin, Pakistan. Monitoring Isotopes in Rivers: Creation of the Global Network of Isotopes in Rivers (GNIR), 167.
Aizen V, Aizen E, Melack J, et al. (1996) Isotopic measurements of precipitation on central Asian glaciers (southeastern Tibet, northern Himalayas, central Tien Shan). J Geophys Res Atmos 101(D4): 9185–9196. https://doi.org/10.1029/96JD00061
Akram W, Latif Z, Iqbal N, et al. (2014) Isotopic investigation of groundwater recharge mechanism in Thal Doab. The Nucleus 51(2): 187–197.
Allan, Nigel JR, Maraini, et al. (2022) “Hindu Kush” Encyclopedia Britannica, 8 Sep. 2022. Available online at: https://www.britannica.com/place/Hindu-Kush (Accessed 27 October 2022)
Ambach W, Dansgaard W, Eisner H, et al. 1968. The altitude effect on the isotopic composition of precipitation and glacier ice in the Alps. Tellus 20(4): 595–600.
Beria H, Larsen JR, Ceperley NC, et al. (2018) Understanding snow hydrological processes through the lens of stable water isotopes. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Water 5(6): e1311. https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1311
Bershaw J, Penny SM, Garzione CN (2012) Stable isotopes of modern water across the Himalaya and eastern Tibetan Plateau: Implications for estimates of paleoelevation and paleoclimate. J Geophys Res Atmos 117(D2). https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JD016132
Bhat MA, Zhong J, Dar T, et al. (2022) Spatial distribution of stable isotopes in surface water on the upper Indus River basin (UIRB): Implications for moisture source and paleoelevation reconstruction. Appl Geochemistry 136: 105137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2021.105137
Boral S, Sen IS, Ghosal D, et al. (2019) Stable water isotope modeling reveals spatio-temporal variability of glacier meltwater contributions to Ganges River headwaters. J Hydrol 577: 123983. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.123983
Chen H, Chen Y, Li W, et al. (2019) Quantifying the contributions of snow/glacier meltwater to river runoff in the Tianshan Mountains, Central Asia. Glob Planet Change 174: 47–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2019.01.002
Clark ID, Fritz P (1997) Environmental Isotopes in Hydrogeology. New York: Lewis Publishers.
Craig H (1961) Isotopic variations in meteoric waters. Science 133(3467): 1702–1703. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.133.3465.1702
Dar T, Rai N, Kumar S (2022b) Distinguishing mountain front and mountain block recharge in an intermontane basin of the Himalayan region. Groundwater 60(4): 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwat.13181
Dar T, Rai N, Kumar S, et al. (2022a) Climate change impact on cryosphere and streamflow in the Upper Jhelum River Basin (UJRB) of north-western Himalayas. Environ Monit Assess 194(3): 140. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-022-09766-3
Dudgeon D, Arthington AH, Gessner MO, et al. (2006) Freshwater biodiversity: importance, threats, status and conservation challenges. Biol Rev 81(2): 163–182. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1464793105006950
Feng M, Zhang W, Zhang S, et al. (2022) The role of snowmelt discharge to runoff of an alpine watershed: Evidence from water stable isotopes. J Hydrol 604: 127209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.127209
Florea L, Bird B, Lau JK, et al. (2017) Stable isotopes of river water and groundwater along altitudinal gradients in the High Himalayas and the Eastern Nyainqêntanglha Mountains. J Hydrol Reg Stud 14: 37–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2017.10.003
Gat JR (1996) Oxygen and hydrogen isotopes in the hydrologic cycle. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci 24(1): 225–262. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.24.1.225
Gat JR, Carmi I (1970) Evolution of the isotopic composition of atmospheric waters in the Mediterranean Sea area. J Geophys Res 75(15): 3039–3048. https://doi.org/10.1029/JC075i015p03039
Gat JR, Klein B, Kushnir Y, et al. (2011) Isotope composition of air moisture over the Mediterranean Sea: an index of the air-sea interaction pattern. Tellus B Chem Phys Meteorol 55(5): 953–965. https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusb.v55i5.16395
Gorski G, Strong C, Good SP, et al. (2015) Vapor hydrogen and oxygen isotopes reflect water of combustion in the urban atmosphere. Proc Natl Acad Sci India 112(11): 3247–3252. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1424728112
Gourcy LL, Groening M, Aggarwal PK (2005) Stable oxygen and hydrogen isotopes in precipitation. In Isotopes in the water cycle. Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 39–51.
Guo X, Tian L, Wang L, et al. (2017) River recharge sources and the partitioning of catchment evapotranspiration fluxes as revealed by stable isotope signals in a typical high-elevation arid catchment. J Hydrol 549: 616–630. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2017.04.037
Halder J, Terzer S, Wassenaar LI, et al. (2015) The Global Network of Isotopes in Rivers (GNIR): integration of water isotopes in watershed observation and riverine research. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 19(8): 3419–3431. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-3419-2015
Hewitt K, Wake CP, Young GJ, et al. (1989) Hydrological investigations at Biafo Glacier, Karakoram Range, Himalaya; an important source of water for the Indus River. Ann Glaciol 13: 103–108. https://doi.org/10.3189/S0260305500007710
Hill AF, Rittger K, Dendup T, et al. (2020) How important is meltwater to the Chamkhar Chhu headwaters of the Brahmaputra River? Front Earth Sci 8: 81. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2020.00081
IAEA (1992) Statistical treatment of data on environmental isotopes in precipitation. Vienna, Austria: Internationale Atomenergie-Organisation.
IAEA/WMO (2022) Global Network of Isotopes in Precipitation. The GNIP Database. Available online at: https://nucleus.iaea.org/wiser (Accessed 22 June 2022)
India-WRIS (2022) India Water resource information system of India. Available online at: http://www.india-wris.nrsc.gov.in (Accessed 22 June 2022)
International Atomic Energy Agency/World Meteorological Organization (2008) Global Network of Isotopes in Precipitation, The GNIP Database. Available online at: http://isohis.iaea.org (Accessed 22 June 2022)
Jameel Y, Brewer S, Good SP, et al. (2016) Tap water isotope ratios reflect urban water system structure and dynamics across a semiarid metropolitan area. Water Resour Res 52(8): 5891–5910. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016WR019104
Jeelani G, Deshpande RD (2017) Isotope fingerprinting of precipitation associated with western disturbances and Indian summer monsoons across the Himalayas. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 126(8): 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-017-0894-z
Jeelani G, Deshpande RD, Shah RA, et al. (2017) Influence of southwest monsoons in the Kashmir Valley, western Himalayas. Isotopes Environ Health Stud 53(4): 400–412. https://doi.org/10.1080/10256016.2016.1273224
Jeelani G, Shah RA, Deshpande RD, et al. (2021) Isotopic analysis to quantify the role of the Indian monsoon on water resources of selected river basins in the Himalayas. Hydrol Process 35(11): e14406. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14406
Jeelani GH, Bhat NA, Shivanna K (2010) Use of δ18O tracer to identify stream and spring origins of a mountainous catchment: A case study from Liddar watershed, Western Himalaya, India. J Hydrol 393(3–4): 257–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.08.021
Karim A, Veizer J (2002) Water balance of the Indus River Basin and moisture source in the Karakoram and western Himalayas: Implications from hydrogen and oxygen isotopes in river water. J Geophys Res Atmos 107(D18): ACH–9. https://doi.org/10.1029/2000JD000253
Karki MB, Shrestha AB, Winiger M (2011) Enhancing knowledge management and adaptation capacity for integrated management of water resources in the Indus River Basin. Mt Res Dev 31(3): 242–251. https://doi.org/10.1659//MRD-JOURNAL-D-11-00017.1
Klaus J, McDonnell JJ (2013) Hydrograph separation using stable isotopes: Review and evaluation. J Hydrol 505: 47–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.09.006
Kohler T (2015) Mountains and climate change: A global concern. Available online at: https://boris.unibe.ch/id/eprint/61540 (Accessed 22 June 2022)
Kumar B, Rai SP, Kumar US, et al. (2010) Isotopic characteristics of Indian precipitation. Water Resour Res 46(12). https://doi.org/10.1029/2009WR008532
Laghari AN, Vanham D, Rauch W (2012) The Indus basin in the framework of current and future water resources management. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 16(4): 1063–1083. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-16-1063-2012
Li X, Weng B, Yan D, et al. (2019) Anthropogenic effects on hydrogen and oxygen isotopes of river water in cities. Int J Environ Res Public Health 16(22): 4429. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16224429
Lone SA, Jeelani G, Deshpande RD, et al. (2019) Stable isotope (δ18O and δD) dynamics of precipitation in a high altitude Himalayan cold desert and its surroundings in Indus river basin, Ladakh. Atmos Res 221: 46–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2019.01.025
Lone SA, Jeelani G, Deshpande RD, et al. (2021) Meltwaters dominate groundwater recharge in cold arid desert of Upper Indus River Basin (UIRB), western Himalayas. Sci Total Environ 786: 147514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147514
Lone SA, Jeelani G, Padhya V, et al. (2022) Identifying and estimating the sources of river flow in the cold arid desert environment of Upper Indus River Basin (UIRB), western Himalayas. Sci Total Environ 832: 154964. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154964
Lutz AF, Immerzeel WW (2013) Water availability analysis for the upper Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Salween and Mekong river basins. Final Report to ICIMOD, September.
Lutz AF, Immerzeel WW, Kraaijenbrink PD, et al. (2016) Climate change impacts on the upper Indus hydrology: sources, shifts and extremes. PloS One 11(11): e0165630. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0165630
Lutz AF, Immerzeel WW, Shrestha AB, et al. (2014) Consistent increase in High Asia’s runoff due to increasing glacier melt and precipitation. Nat Clim Chang 4(7): 587–592. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2237
Marchina C, Bianchini G, Natali C, et al. (2015) The Po river water from the Alps to the Adriatic Sea (Italy): new insights from geochemical and isotopic (δ18O−δD) data. Environ Sci Pollut Res 22(7): 5184–5203. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3750-6
Maussion F, Scherer D, Mölg T, et al. (2014) Precipitation seasonality and variability over the Tibetan Plateau as resolved by the High Asia Reanalysis. J Clim 27(5): 1910–1927. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00282.1
Mukhopadhyay B, Khan A (2014) A quantitative assessment of the genetic sources of the hydrologic flow regimes in Upper Indus Basin and its significance in a changing climate. J Hydrol 509: 549–572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.11.059
Nan Y, Tian F, Hu H, et al. (2019) Stable isotope composition of river waters across the world. Water 11(9): 1760. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11091760
Natali C, Bianchini G, Marchina C, et al. (2016) Geochemistry of the Adige River water from the Eastern Alps to the Adriatic Sea (Italy): evidences for distinct hydrological components and water-rock interactions. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23(12): 11677–11694. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6356-3
NWP (2018) National Water Policy. Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of Pakistan.
Oki T, Kanae S (2006) Global hydrological cycles and world water resources. Science 313: 1068–1072. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.112884
Ormerod SJ (2009) Climate change, river conservation and the adaptation challenge. Aquat Conserv Mar Freshwater Ecosyst 19(6): 609–613. https://doi.org/10.1002/aqc.1062
Pande K, Padia JT, Ramesh R, et al. (2000) Stable isotope systematics of surface water bodies in the Himalayan and Trans-Himalayan (Kashmir) region. J Earth Syst Sci 109(1): 109–115. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02719154
Pant N, Semwal P, Khobragade SD, et al. (2021) Tracing the isotopic signatures of cryospheric water and establishing the altitude effect in Central Himalayas: A tool for cryospheric water partitioning. J Hydrol 595: 125983. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.125983
Parvaiz A, Khattak JA, Hussain I, et al. (2021) Salinity enrichment, sources and its contribution to elevated groundwater arsenic and fluoride levels in Rachna Doab, Punjab Pakistan: Stable isotope (δ2H and δ18O) approach as an evidence. Environ Pollut 268: 115710. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115710
Piracha A, Majeed Z (2011) Water use in Pakistan’s agricultural sector: water conservation under the changed climatic conditions. Int J water resour arid environ 1(3): 170–179. http://handle.uws.edu.au:8081/1959.7/504721
Qian H, Li P, Wu J, et al. (2013) Isotopic characteristics of precipitation, surface and ground waters in the Yinchuan plain, Northwest China. Environ Earth Sci 70(1): 57–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-012-2103-3
Rai SP, Singh D, Jacob N, et al. (2019) Identifying contribution of snowmelt and glacier melt to the Bhagirathi River (Upper Ganga) near snout of the Gangotri Glacier using environmental isotopes. Catena 173: 339–351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2018.10.031
Rai SP, Thayyen RJ, Purushothaman P, et al. (2016) Isotopic characteristics of cryospheric waters in parts of Western Himalayas, India. Environ Earth Sci 75(7): 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-016-5417-8
Ramesh R, Sarin MM (1992) Stable isotope study of the Ganga (Ganges) river system. J Hydrol 139(1–4): 49–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(92)90194-Z
Rehman Qaisar FU, Zhang F, Pant RR, et al. (2018) Spatial variation, source identification, and quality assessment of surface water geochemical composition in the Indus River Basin, Pakistan. Environ Sci Pollut Res 25(13): 12749–12763. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-1519-z
Richey AS, Thomas BF, Lo MH, et al. (2015) Quantifying renewable groundwater stress with GRACE. Water Resour Res 51(7): 5217–5238. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015WR017349
Rozanski K, Araguás-Araguás L, Gonfiantini R, et al. (1993) Climate change in continental isotopic records. Climate Changes in Continental Isotopic Records 78: 1–36.
Schaefli B (2015) Projecting hydropower production under future climates: a guide for decision — makers and modelers to interpret and design climate change impact assessments. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Water 2(4): 271–289. https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1083
Sharma A, Kumar K, Laskar A, et al. (2017) Oxygen, deuterium, and strontium isotope characteristics of the Indus River water system. Geomorphology 284: 5–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.12.014
Smolenaars WJ, Dhaubanjar S, Jamil MK, et al. (2022) Future upstream water consumption and its impact on downstream water availability in the transboundary Indus Basin. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 26(4): 861–883. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-861-2022
Tang Z, Wang X, Wang J, et al. (2017) Spatiotemporal variation of snow cover in Tianshan Mountains, Central Asia, based on cloud-free MODIS fractional snow cover product, 2001–2015. Remote Sens 9(10): 1045. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9101045
Wescoat Jr JL (1991) Managing the Indus River basin in light of climate change: Four conceptual approaches. Glob Environ Change 1(5): 381–395.
Wu H, Wu J, Song F, et al. (2019) Spatial distribution and controlling factors of surface water stable isotope values (δ18O and δ2H) across Kazakhstan, Central Asia. Sci Total Environ 678: 53–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.389
Yang Y, Weng B, Yan D, et al. (2021) Tracing potential water sources of the Nagqu River using stable isotopes. J Hydrol Reg Stud 34: 100807. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2021.100807
Yao Z, Liu J, Huang HQ, et al. (2009) Characteristics of isotope in precipitation, river water and lake water in the Manasarovar basin of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Environ Geol 57(3): 551–556. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-008-1324-y
Younas A, Mushtaq N, Khattak JA, et al. (2019) High levels of fluoride contamination in groundwater of the semi-arid alluvial aquifers, Pakistan: evaluating the recharge sources and geochemical identification via stable isotopes and other major elemental data. Environ Sci Pollut Res 26(35): 35728–35741. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-06610-z
Young GJ, Hewitt K (1990) Hydrology research in the upper Indus basin, Karakoram Himalaya, Pakistan. IAHS Publ 190: 139–152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-06610-z
Young GJ, Hewitt K (1993) Glaciohydrological features of the Karakoram Himalaya: measurement possibilities and constraints. IAHS Publications (Publications of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences) 218: 273–284.
Zhao L, Ding R, Moore JC (2014) Glacier volume and area change by 2050 in high mountain Asia. Glob Planet Change 122: 197–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2014.08.006
Acknowledgements
A Jahan acknowledges the Department of Science and Technology for the INSPIRE PhD fellowship. This work was supported by the FIG-100779 grant and IIT Roorkee Institute Fellowship to N Rai, and by the Department of Science and Technology through INSPIRE fellowship (IF170907) scheme (grant No. 7053-106-044-428) to A Jahan.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Electronic Supplementary Material
11629_2022_7655_MOESM1_ESM.pdf
Comprehensive isotopic characterization of the hydrological processes of the Indus river basin (IRB): A comparison between Upper Indus Basin (UIB) and Lower Indus Basin (LIB)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Jahan, A., Dar, T., Kumar, S. et al. Comprehensive isotopic characterization of the hydrological processes of the Indus river basin (IRB): A comparison between Upper Indus Basin (UIB) and Lower Indus Basin (LIB). J. Mt. Sci. 20, 705–723 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-022-7655-4
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-022-7655-4