First, second, and third-order barriers to information literacy and inquiry-based learning for teachers in poverty contexts

Abstract

This study sought to understand challenges that teachers (N = 15) in poverty settings encountered during information literacy instruction (ILI) and inquiry-based learning. First order barriers focused on insufficient support for instruction (training to align ILI in poverty settings; integrate diverse information resources/technology tools), administrative support (differing administrative priorities toward ILI); and access to technology (lack of broadband internet; paywalled information/learning resources). Second-order barriers consisted of the following: teachers’ pedagogical beliefs (empowering student IL through question-generation); teachers’ beliefs about computers/technology (challenge of misinformation and knowledge gaps); and teachers’ beliefs about students’ roles (strategies for structuring and limiting resources; addressing affective deficits due to poverty through ILI). Lastly, third-order barriers explored teachers’ design-thinking in ways that employed multiple visualizations. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.

Appendix A: First, Second and Third Order Barriers Coding Scheme Definitions

Barrier	Operational Definition	Examples
1st Order Barriers
Lack of Training	K-12 teachers lack sufficient training to conduct inquiry-based learning and information literacy instruction, and thus struggle to effectively integrate these instructional strategies as part of their curriculum (Francom, 2020; Li et al., 2019; Shannon et al., 2019).	Teachers receive only general training in their school district on ILI such as a group of weblinks to resources they could use. Teachers are not trained on poverty specific ILI pedagogy.
Lack of Time to Plan Instruction	Teachers need more time to learn and incorporate technology tools into inquiry-based instruction such as ILI. This barrier grows as teachers training increases and they learn more tools (Kopcha, 2012).	Teachers must take additional time to update lesson plans with new technology tools Teachers need extra time to make sure the tools are accessible for their students.
Lack of Administrative Support	Administrators may view test scores and other academic issues as priorities over ILI (Claro, et al., 2017)	Administrators do not see the value of ILI in the overall curriculum They are unaware of ILI best practices.
Lack of Technology Access	Students living in poverty have limited internet access at home that hampers their ability to complete inquiry-based assignments using technology (Warschaeur, 2011)	Students may have to share a device with several siblings at home. Students may lack high-speed wifi at home.
Second Order Barriers
Teachers’ Beliefs About Pedagogy	Teachers either tend to favor a teacher-centered, or a student-centered approach to pedagogy.	Teacher-centered approaches tend to limit inquiry-based learning options. Allowing students to select the questions they will seek the answers is a more student-centered approach.
Teachers’ Beliefs About the Role of Computers/Technology	How comfortable teachers are with technology is directly related to how they will employ it in their instructional practice (Ertmer, et al., 2012).	Teachers who are more willing to integrate technology are also more willing to use it in student-centered ways for ILI.
Teachers’ Beliefs About the Instructional Roles of Teachers and Students	This construct relates to teacher perceptions of students capabilities to engage in inquiry-based learning such as ILI (Brandmiller, et al., 2020).	Teachers may limit their ILI based on their perceptions of students’ capabilities. Teachers may have to take an additional roles such as motivating learners and helping them to understand the significance of developing IL skills in their future success.
Third Order Barriers
Design thinking	Incorporating design thinking is an iterative process of the following constructs: understand, observe, point of view, ideate, prototype, and test ((Brown, 2008; Razzouk & Shute, 2012).	Teachers plan multiple approaches to inquiry-based instruction to reach all of their learners. Teachers create and iterate materials throughout instruction to address shifts in their learners’ needs.