Abstract
The spatial distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their source contributions employing receptor models has been widely reported. However, the temporal distribution of PAH source contributions is less studied. Thus, in this paper, three receptor models including principle component analysis-multiple linear regression (PCA-MLR), positive matrix factorization (PMF), and Unmix were used to PAH source apportionment study in a sediment core from Honghu Lake, China. Sixteen USEPA priority PAHs in 37 sliced sediment layers (1-cm interval) were measured, with the concentrations of ∑16PAH (sum of 16 PAHs) ranging from 93.0 to 431 ng g−1. The source apportionment results derived from three receptor models were similar, with three common sources: mixed sources of biomass burning and coal combustion (31.0–41.4% on average), petroleum combustion (31.8–45.5%), and oil leakage (13.1–21.3%). The PMF model segregated an additional source: domestic coal combustion (contributed 20.9% to the ∑16PAHs). Four aspects including intra-comparison, inter-comparison, source numbers and compositions, and source contributions were considered in comparison study. The results indicated that the PMF model was most reasonable in PAH source apportionment research in this study.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Andersson M, Klug M, Eggen OA, Ottesen RT (2014) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sediments from lake Lille Lungegårdsvannet in Bergen, western Norway; appraising pollution sources from the urban history. Sci Total Environ 470–471:1160–1172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.10.086
Baudic A, Gros V, Sauvage S, Locoge N, Sanchez O, Sarda-Estève R, Kalogridis C, Petit J-E, Bonnaire N, Baisnée D, Favez O, Albinet A, Sciare J, Bonsang B (2016) Seasonal variability and source apportionment of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the Paris megacity (France). Atmospheric Chem Phys 16:11961–11989. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-11961-2016
Belis CA, Pernigotti D, Karagulian F, Pirovano G, Larsen BR, Gerboles M, Hopke PK (2015) A new methodology to assess the performance and uncertainty of source apportionment models in intercomparison exercises. Atmos Environ 119:35–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.08.002
Bzdusek PA, Christensen ER, Li A, Zou Q (2004) Source apportionment of sediment PAHs in Lake Calumet, Chicago: application of factor analysis with nonnegative constraints. Environ Sci Technol 38:97–103. https://doi.org/10.1021/es034842k
Cao Q, Wang H, Chen G (2011) Source apportionment of PAHs using two mathematical models for mangrove sediments in Shantou coastal zone, China. Estuar Coasts 34:950–960. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-011-9397-3
Cesari D, Amato F, Pandolfi M, Alastuey A, Querol X, Contini D (2016) An inter-comparison of PM10 source apportionment using PCA and PMF receptor models in three European sites. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23:15133–15148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6599-z
Chen Y, Sheng G, Bi X, Feng Y, Mai B, Fu J (2005) Emission factors for carbonaceous particles and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from residential coal combustion in China. Environ Sci Technol 39:1861–1867. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0493650
Dahle S, Savinov VM, Matishov GG, Evenset A, Næs K (2003) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in bottom sediments of the Kara Sea shelf, Gulf of Ob and Yenisei Bay. Sci Total Environ 306:57–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00484-9
Fang G, Wu Y, Chang C, Ho T (2006) RETRACTED: a study of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons concentrations and source identifications by methods of diagnostic ratio and principal component analysis at Taichung chemical Harbor near Taiwan Strait. Chemosphere 64:1233–1242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.11.031
Feng C, Xia X, Shen Z, Zhou Z (2007) Distribution and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Wuhan section of the Yangtze River, China. Environ Monit Assess 133:447–458. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-006-9599-5
Feng J, Li X, Guo W, Liu S, Ren X, Sun J (2014) Potential source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface sediments from the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 21:11447–11456. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3051-0
Giuliani S, Piazza R, El Moumni B, Polo FP, Vecchiato M, Romano S, Zambon S, Frignani M, Bellucci LG (2015) Recognizing different impacts of human and natural sources on the spatial distribution and temporal trends of PAHs and PCBs (including PCB-11) in sediments of the Nador Lagoon (Morocco). Sci Total Environ 526:346–357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.04.057
Grimalt JO, van Drooge BL, Ribes A, Fernández P, Appleby P (2004) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon composition in soils and sediments of high altitude lakes. Environ Pollut 131:13–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2004.02.024
Guo J, Wu F, Luo X, Liang Z, Liao H, Zhang R, Li W, Zhao X, Chen S, Mai B (2010) Anthropogenic input of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons into five lakes in Western China. Environ Pollut 158:2175–2180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2010.02.018
Guo W, Pei Y, Yang Z, Chen H (2011) Historical changes in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) input in Lake Baiyangdian related to regional socio-economic development. J Hazard Mater 187:441–449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.01.052
Guo Z, Lin T, Zhang G, Yang Z, Fang M (2006) High-resolution depositional records of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the central continental shelf mud of the East China Sea. Environ Sci Technol 40:5304–5311. https://doi.org/10.1021/es060878b
Harrison RM, Smith DJT, Luhana L (1996) Source apportionment of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons collected from an urban location in Birmingham, U.K. Environ Sci Technol 30:825–832. https://doi.org/10.1021/es950252d
Henry RC (1997) History and fundamentals of multivariate air quality receptor models. Chemom Intell Lab Syst 37:37–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-7439(96)00048-2
Henry RC (2003) Multivariate receptor modeling by N-dimensional edge detection. Chemom Intell Lab Syst 65:179–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-7439(02)00108-9
Henry RC (2007) EPA Unmix 6.0 fundamentals and user guide. US Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/air-research/unmix-60-model-environmental-data-analyses
Hopke PK (2003) Recent developments in receptor modeling. J Chemom 17:255–265. https://doi.org/10.1002/cem.796
Hu T, Zhang J, Ye C, Zhang L, Xing X, Zhang Y, Wang Y, Sun W, Qi S, Zhang Q (2017) Status, source and health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soil from the water-level-fluctuation zone of the Three Gorges Reservoir, China. J Geochem Explor 172:20–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2016.09.012
Huang W, Wang Z, Yan W (2012) Distribution and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sediments from Zhanjiang Bay and Leizhou Bay, South China. Mar Pollut Bull 64:1962–1969. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2012.05.023
Krishnaswamy S, Lal D, Martin JM, Meybeck M (1971) Geochronology of lake sediments. Earth Planet Sci Lett 11:407–414. https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(71)90202-0
Kulkarni P, Venkataraman C (2000) Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Mumbai, India. Atmos Environ 34:2785–2790. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(99)00312-X
Lang Y, Li G, Wang X, Peng P, Bai J (2015) Combination of Unmix and positive matrix factorization model identifying contributions to carcinogenicity and mutagenicity for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons sources in Liaohe delta reed wetland soils, China. Chemosphere 120:431–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.08.048
Lang Y, Yang W (2013) Source apportionment of PAHs using Unmix model for Yantai costal surface sediments, China. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 92:30–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-013-1164-7
Larsen RK, Baker JE (2003) Source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the urban atmosphere: a comparison of three methods. Environ Sci Technol 37:1873–1881. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0206184
Li C, Huo S, Yu Z, Xi B, Zeng X, Wu F (2014) Spatial distribution, potential risk assessment, and source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sediments of Lake Chaohu, China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 21:12028–12039. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3137-8
Li W, Tian Y, Shi G, Guo C, Li X, Feng Y (2012) Concentrations and sources of PAHs in surface sediments of the Fenhe reservoir and watershed, China. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 75:198–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2011.08.021
Lin T, Qin Y, Zheng B, Li Y, Chen Y, Guo Z (2013) Source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the Dahuofang Reservoir, Northeast China. Environ Monit Assess 185:945–953. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-012-2605-1
Lin T, Qin Y, Zheng B, Li Y, Zhang L, Guo Z (2012) Sedimentary record of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a reservoir in Northeast China. Environ Pollut 163:256–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2012.01.005
Liu L, Wang J, Wei G, Jiang Y, Wong CS, Zeng E (2012) Sediment records of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the continental shelf of China: implications for evolving anthropogenic impacts. Environ Sci Technol 46:6497–6504. https://doi.org/10.1021/es300474z
Liu X, Xu M, Yang Z, Sun T, Cui B, Wang L, Wu D (2010) Sources and risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Baiyangdian Lake, North China. J Environ Sci Health Part A 45:413–420. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934520903540588
Liu Y, Chen L, Huang Q, Li W, Tang Y, Zhao J (2009) Source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in surface sediments of the Huangpu River, Shanghai, China. Sci Total Environ 407:2931–2938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.12.046
Ma W, Li Y, Qi H, Sun D, Liu L, Wang D (2010) Seasonal variations of sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) to a northeastern urban city, China. Chemosphere 79:441–447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.01.048
Mai B, Fu J, Zhang G, Lin Z, Min Y, Sheng G, Wang X (2001) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediments from the Pearl river and estuary, China: spatial and temporal distribution and sources. Appl Geochem 16:1429–1445. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-2927(01)00050-6
Mai B, Qi S, Zeng EY, Fu J, Sheng G, Peng P, Wang Z (2003) Distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the coastal region off Macao, China: assessment of input sources and transport pathways using compositional analysis. Environ Sci Technol 37:4855–4863. https://doi.org/10.1021/es034514k
Malik A, Verma P, Singh AK, Singh KP (2011) Distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in water and bed sediments of the Gomti River, India. Environ Monit Assess 172:529–545. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1352-4
Micić V, Kruge MA, Köster J, Hofmann T (2011) Natural, anthropogenic and fossil organic matter in river sediments and suspended particulate matter: a multi-molecular marker approach. Sci Total Environ 409:905–919. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.11.009
Readman J, Fillmann G, Tolosa I, Bartocci J, Villeneuve J-P, Catinni C, Mee L (2002) Petroleum and PAH contamination of the Black Sea. Mar Pollut Bull 44:48–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0025-326X(01)00189-8
Shi G, Li X, Feng Y, Wang Y, Wu J, Li J, Zhu T (2009) Combined source apportionment, using positive matrix factorization–chemical mass balance and principal component analysis/multiple linear regression–chemical mass balance models. Atmos Environ 43:2929–2937. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2009.02.054
Simcik MF, Eisenreich SJ, Lioy PJ (1999) Source apportionment and source/sink relationships of PAHs in the coastal atmosphere of Chicago and Lake Michigan. Atmos Environ 33:5071–5079. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(99)00233-2
Sofowote UM, Hung H, Rastogi AK, Westgate JN, Deluca PF, Su Y, McCarry BE (2011) Assessing the long-range transport of PAH to a sub-Arctic site using positive matrix factorization and potential source contribution function. Atmos Environ 45:967–976. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2010.11.005
Sofowote UM, McCarry BE, Marvin CH (2008) Source apportionment of PAH in Hamilton harbour suspended sediments: comparison of two factor analysis methods. Environ Sci Technol 42:6007–6014. https://doi.org/10.1021/es800219z
Song Y, Dai W, Shao M, Liu Y, Lu S, Kuster W, Goldan P (2008) 1987) Comparison of receptor models for source apportionment of volatile organic compounds in Beijing, China. Environ Pollut Barking Essex 156:174–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2007.12.014
Song Y, Xie S, Zhang Y, Zeng L, Salmon LG, Zheng M (2006) Source apportionment of PM2.5 in Beijing using principal component analysis/absolute principal component scores and UNMIX. Sci Total Environ 372:278–286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.08.041
Stout SA, Graan TP (2010) Quantitative source apportionment of PAHs in sediments of Little Menomonee River, Wisconsin: weathered creosote versus urban background. Environ Sci Technol 44:2932–2939. https://doi.org/10.1021/es903353z
USEPA (2008) EPA positive matrix factorization (PMF) 3.0 fundamentals & user guide. US Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/air-research/positive-matrix-factorization-model-environmental-data-analyses
Wang D, Yang M, Jia H, Zhou L, Li Y (2009) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban street dust and surface soil: comparisons of concentration, profile, and source. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 56:173–180. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-008-9182-x
Wang X, Yang H, Gong P, Zhao X, Wu G, Turner S, Yao T (2010) One century sedimentary records of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, mercury and trace elements in the Qinghai Lake, Tibetan Plateau. Environ Pollut 158:3065–3070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2010.06.034
Wu Y, Wang S, Hou X (2006) Chronology of Holocene lacustrine sediments in Co Ngoin, central Tibetan Plateau. Sci China Ser Earth Sci 49:991–1001. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-006-0991-3
Xu J, Guo J, Liu G, Shi G, Guo C, Zhang Y, Feng Y (2014) Historical trends of concentrations, source contributions and toxicities for PAHs in dated sediment cores from five lakes in western China. Sci Total Environ 470–471:519–526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.10.022
Xu J, Peng X, Guo C, Xu J, Lin H, Shi G, Lv J, Zhang Y, Feng Y, Tysklind M (2016) Sediment PAH source apportionment in the Liaohe River using the ME2 approach: a comparison to the PMF model. Sci Total Environ 553:164–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.02.062
Xu S, Liu W, Tao S (2006) Emission of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in China. Environ Sci Technol 40:702–708. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0517062
Xue L, Lang Y, Liu A, Liu J (2010) Application of CMB model for source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in coastal surface sediments from Rizhao offshore area, China. Environ Monit Assess 163:57–65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-009-0816-x
Yang B, Zhou L, Xue N, Li F, Li Y, Vogt RD, Cong X, Yan Y, Liu B (2013a) Source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soils of Huanghuai Plain, China: comparison of three receptor models. Sci Total Environ 443:31–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.10.094
Yang D, Qi S, Zhang Y, Xing X, Liu H, Qu C, Liu J, Li F (2013b) Levels, sources and potential risks of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in multimedia environment along the Jinjiang River mainstream to Quanzhou Bay, China. Mar Pollut Bull 76:298–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.08.016
Yu W, Liu R, Wang J, Xu F, Shen Z (2015) Source apportionment of PAHs in surface sediments using positive matrix factorization combined with GIS for the estuarine area of the Yangtze River, China. Chemosphere 134:263–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.04.049
Yunker MB, Macdonald RW, Vingarzan R, Mitchell RH, Goyette D, Sylvestre S (2002) PAHs in the Fraser River basin: a critical appraisal of PAH ratios as indicators of PAH source and composition. Org Geochem 33:489–515. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0146-6380(02)00002-5
Zakaria MP, Takada H, Tsutsumi S, Ohno K, Yamada J, Kouno E, Kumata H (2002) Distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in rivers and estuaries in Malaysia: a widespread input of petrogenic PAHs. Environ Sci Technol 36:1907–1918
Zhang R, Zhang F, Zhang T (2013) Sedimentary records of PAHs in a sediment core from tidal flat of Haizhou Bay, China. Sci Total Environ 450–451:280–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.02.029
Zhang Y, Guo CS, Xu J, Tian YZ, Shi GL, Feng YC (2012) Potential source contributions and risk assessment of PAHs in sediments from Taihu Lake, China: comparison of three receptor models. Water Res 46:3065–3073. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2012.03.006
Zhang Y, Tao S, Cao J, Coveney RM (2007) Emission of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in China by county. Environ Sci Technol 41:683–687. https://doi.org/10.1021/es061545h
Acknowledgements
We thank the Nanjing Institute of Geography and Limnology for sediment core dating. Thanks are also given to the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 41503103) and the Natural Science Foundation General Projects of Hubei Province (No. 2014CFB895) for financial support.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Responsible editor: Hongwen Sun
Electronic supplementary material
ESM 1
(DOCX 1653 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Zheng, H., Yang, D., Hu, T. et al. Source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic carbons (PAHs) in sediment core from Honghu Lake, central China: comparison study of three receptor models. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24, 25899–25911 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-0185-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-0185-x