Abstract
The assessments of heavy metal soil pollution in Kosovo are deficient. Considering that Kosovo is characterized by complex geological settings and high mining activity, it is important to assess the risk of heavy metal soil pollution. The research aims to evaluate the level and spatial distribution of some heavy metals and biogenic elements in soil samples throughout the whole territory of the country. The surface soil samples were collected at 0–25 cm depth from twenty-four sampling sites evenly distributed in the study area. Each site comprised five to ten sub-samples within a 50 × 50 m expanse. The concentration of elements (Cd, Pb, Co, Cu, Mn, and Ni) was determined by graphite-furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy (GFAAS). Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) and atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) were used to determine the levels of Ca, Mg, Na, K, Zn, and Fe, while cold vapor atomic absorption spectroscopy (CVAAS) was used for the determination of Hg. For the processing of experimental data, statistical analyses (descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and linear regression) were applied, as were cluster and factor analyses. The concentrations of heavy metals and biogenic elements, based on their average values in the soil samples, exhibited the following trend: Fe > Mg > Ca > Mn > K > Cr > Na > Ni > Pb > Zn > Cu > Co > Cd > Hg. In specific sampling locations, the concentrations of Pb, Cd, Cu, and Ni surpassed the maximum thresholds set by the EU directive. Long-term emission inputs from the mining industry, coal-fired power sources, and areas with heavy vehicular traffic are the main sources of these elements. The outcomes of this investigation provide precise information regarding potential sources of metal pollution in contaminated areas, thereby serving as a basis for future research endeavors and enabling relevant institutions to implement strategies aimed at reducing this form of pollution.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.
The authors declare that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article.
References
Abrahams, P. W. (2002). Soils: Their implications to human health. Science of the Total Environment, 291(1), 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(01)01102-0
Administrative Instruction (GRK) No.11/2018. (2018). Government of Kosovo, R. of K., Limited Values of Emissions of Polluted Materials into Soil, was approved on 62 meeting of the Government of Kosovo, with the decision.
Adriano, D. C. (2001). Trace Elements in Terrestrial Environments. Springer New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-21510-5
Almasoud, F. I., Usman, A. R., & Al-Farraj, A. S. (2015). Heavy metals in the soils of the Arabian Gulf coast affected by industrial activities: Analysis and assessment using enrichment factor and multivariate analysis. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 8(3), 1691–1703. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-014-1298-x
Arditsoglou, A., & Samara, C. (2005). Levels of total suspended particulate matter and major trace elements in Kosovo: A source identification and apportionment study. Chemosphere, 59(5), 669–678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2004.10.056
Borgna, L., Di Lella, L. A., Nannoni, F., Pisani, A., Pizzetti, E., Protano, G., Riccobono, F., & Rossi, S. (2009). The high contents of lead in soils of northern Kosovo. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 101(2), 137–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2008.05.001
Çevik, F., Göksu, M. Z. L., Derici, O. B., & Fındık, Ö. (2009). An assessment of metal pollution in surface sediments of Seyhan dam by using enrichment factor, geoaccumulation index and statistical analyses. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 152(1–4), 309–317. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-008-0317-3
Chow, R., Scheidegger, R., Doppler, T., Dietzel, A., Fenicia, F., & Stamm, C. (2020). A review of long-term pesticide monitoring studies to assess surface water quality trends. Water Research X, 9, 100064–100064. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wroa.2020.100064
Christoforidis, A., & Stamatis, N. (2009). Heavy metal contamination in street dust and roadside soil along the major national road in Kavala’s region, Greece. Geoderma, 151(3–4), 257–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.04.016
Council of the European Union. (1986). Council Directive 86/278/EEC of 12 June 1986 on the protection of the environment, and in particular of the soil, when sewage sludge is used in agriculture. Official Journal, 181, 6–12.
Dinis, M.D.L., Fiúza, A., Góis, J., de Carvalho, J. S., & Meira Castro, A. C. (2021). Assessment of Natural Radioactivity, Heavy Metals and Particulate Matter in Air and Soil around a Coal-Fired Power Plant—An Integrated Approach. Atmosphere, 12(11), 1433–1433.
De Silva, S., Ball, A. S., Huynh, T., & Reichman, S. M. (2016). Metal accumulation in roadside soil in Melbourne, Australia: Effect of road age, traffic density and vehicular speed. Environmental Pollution, 208, 102–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2015.09.032
Devitt D. (1981). Sodium-Potassium Ratios in Soil Solution and Plant Response under Saline Conditions. In Soil Science Society of America Journal, Vol. 45, Issue 1, pp. 80–86. https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2136/sssaj1981.03615995004500010018x. Accessed April 2023.
Dinis, M. L., Fiúza, A., Góis, J., de Carvalho, J. S., & Castro, A. C. M. (2011). Assessment of direct radiological risk and indirect associated toxic risks originated by Coal-Fired Power Plants. Radioprotection, 46(6), S137–S143. https://doi.org/10.1051/radiopro/20116898s
Durmishaj, B., Hyseni, S., Tashko, A., Kelmendi, M., Operta, M., & Tahiri, I. (2012). Main geochemical association of the sulfides lead-zinc mineralization in Trepça mineral belt—Artana mine, Kosovo. Journal of Engineering and Applied Science, 7, 538–542.
Forbes, P., Thanjekwayo, M., Okonkwo, O., Sekhula, M., & Zvinowanda, C. (2009). Lichens as biomonitors for manganese and lead in Pretoria, South Africa. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin, 18.
Government of Kosovo, R. of K. (2000). Map of minerals of Kosovo. Map of Minerals of Kosovo.
Government, R. of K. (2018). Administrative Instruction of Grk No. 11/2018 on Limited Values of Emissions of Polluted Materials Into Soil.
Helmreich, B., Hilliges, R., Schriewer, A., & Horn, H. (2010). Runoff pollutants of a highly trafficked urban road – Correlation analysis and seasonal influences. Chemosphere, 80(9), 991–997. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.05.037
Jallad, K. N. (2015). Heavy metal exposure from ingesting rice and its related potential hazardous health risks to humans. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22(20), 15449–15458. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4753-7
Järup, L. (2003). Hazards of heavy metal contamination. British Medical Bulletin, 68(1), 167–182. https://doi.org/10.1093/bmb/ldg032
Johansson, C., Norman, M., & Burman, L. (2009). Road traffic emission factors for heavy metals. Atmospheric Environment, 43(31), 4681–4688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.10.024
Kabata-Pendias, A. (2000). Trace Elements in Soils and Plants. CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420039900
Kabata-Pendias, A. (2010). Trace Elements in Soils and Plants (4th ed.). CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/b10158
Kirberger, M., Wong, H. C., Jiang, J., & Yang, J. J. (2013). Metal toxicity and opportunistic binding of Pb2+ in proteins. Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry, 125, 40–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2013.04.002
Kittner, N., Fadadu, R. P., Buckley, H. L., Schwarzman, M. R., & Kammen, D. M. (2018). Trace Metal Content of Coal Exacerbates Air-Pollution-Related Health Risks: The Case of Lignite Coal in Kosovo. Environmental Science & Technology, 52(4), 2359–2367. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b04254
Krailertrattanachai, N., Ketrot, D., & Wisawapipat, W. (2019). The Distribution of Trace Metals in Roadside Agricultural Soils, Thailand. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(5), 714–714. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16050714
Kuşçu, İ. S. K., Kılıç Bayraktar, M., & Tunçer, B. (2022). Determination of Heavy Metal (Cr Co, and Ni) Accumulation in Selected Vegetables Depending on Traffic Density. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 233(6), 224–224. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-022-05697-4
Lazo, P., Steinnes, E., Qarri, F., Allajbeu, S., Kane, S., Stafilov, T., Frontasyeva, M. V., & Harmens, H. (2018). Origin and spatial distribution of metals in moss samples in Albania: A hotspot of heavy metal contamination in Europe. Chemosphere, 190, 337–349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.09.132
Lazo, P. (2008). Basic knowledge in chemometrics. (1st ed.). Tirana: University of Tirana, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Department of Chemistry.
Liu, D., Li, Y., Ma, J., Li, C., & Chen, X. (2016). Heavy Metal Pollution in Urban Soil from 1994 to 2012 in Kaifeng City, China. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 227(5), 154–154. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-016-2788-0
Liu, K., Shang, Q., Wan, C., Song, P., Ma, C., & Cao, L. (2018). Characteristics and Sources of Heavy Metals in PM2.5 during a Typical Haze Episode in Rural and Urban Areas in Taiyuan, China. Atmosphere, 9(1), 2–2. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos9010002
Maxhuni, A., Lazo, P., Kane, S., Qarri, F., Marku, E., & Harmens, H. (2016). First survey of atmospheric heavy metal deposition in Kosovo using moss biomonitoring. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23(1), 744–755. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5257-1
Meister, K., Johansson, C., & Forsberg, B. (2012). Estimated Short-Term Effects of Coarse Particles on Daily Mortality in Stockholm, Sweden. Environmental Health Perspectives, 120(3), 431–436. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1103995
Nannoni, F., & Protano, G. (2016). Chemical and biological methods to evaluate the availability of heavy metals in soils of the Siena urban area (Italy). Science of the Total Environment, 568, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.05.208
Nannoni, F., Protano, G., & Riccobono, F. (2011). Fractionation and geochemical mobility of heavy elements in soils of a mining area in northern Kosovo. Geoderma, 161(1–2), 63–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2010.12.008
Nannoni, F., Rossi, S., & Protano, G. (2016). Potentially toxic element contamination in soil and accumulation in maize plants in a smelter area in Kosovo. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23(12), 11937–11946. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6411-0
Nortjé, G. P., & Laker, M. C. (2021). Factors That Determine the Sorption of Mineral Elements in Soils and Their Impact on Soil and Water Pollution. Minerals, 11(8), 821–821. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11080821
Ostad-Ali-Askari, K. (2022a). Management of risks substances and sustainable development. Applied Water Science, 12(4), 65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-021-01562-7
Ostad-Ali-Askari, K. (2022b). Developing an optimal design model of furrow irrigation based on the minimum cost and maximum irrigation efficiency. Applied Water Science, 12(7), 144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-022-01646-y
Pant, P., & Harrison, R. M. (2013). Estimation of the contribution of road traffic emissions to particulate matter concentrations from field measurements: A review. Atmospheric Environment, 77, 78–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.04.028
Parlak, M., Tunçay, T., & Botsou, F. (2022). Heavy Metals in Soil and Sand from Playgrounds of Çanakkale City (Turkey), and Related Health Risks for Children. Sustainability, 14(3), 1145–1145. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031145
Pearson, J., Wells, D. M., Seller, K. J., Bennett, A., Soares, A., Woodall, J., & Ingrouille, M. J. (2000). Traffic exposure increases natural 15 N and heavy metal concentrations in mosses. New Phytologist, 147(2), 317–326. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1469-8137.2000.00702.x
Peng, C., Wang, M., Chen, W., Chang, A. C., & Crittenden, J. C. (2017). Mass balance-based regression modeling of Cd and Zn accumulation in urban soils of Beijing. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 53, 99–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2016.05.012
Rieuwerts, J. S., Farago, M. E., Cikrt, M., & Bencko, V. (2000). Differences in lead bioavailability between a smelting and a mining area. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 122(1/2), 203–229. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005251527946
Saint-Laurent, D., Hähni, M., St-Laurent, J., & Baril, F. (2010). Comparative Assessment of Soil Contamination by Lead and Heavy Metals in Riparian and Agricultural Areas (Southern Québec, Canada). International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 7(8), 3100–3114. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph7083100
Santos-Francés, F., Martínez-Graña, A., Zarza, C., Sánchez, A., & Rojo, P. (2017). Spatial Distribution of Heavy Metals and the Environmental Quality of Soil in the Northern Plateau of Spain by Geostatistical Methods. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(6), 568–568. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14060568
Schroeder, D., & Dümmler, H. (1966). Kurzmitteilung Kalium-Nachlieferung, Kalium-Festlegung und Tonmineralbestand schleswig-holsteinischer Böden. Zeitschrift Für Pflanzenernährung, Düngung, Bodenkunde, 113(3), 213–215. https://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.19661130305
Sezgin, N., Ozcan, H. K., Demir, G., Nemlioglu, S., & Bayat, C. (2004). Determination of heavy metal concentrations in street dusts in Istanbul E-5 highway. Environment International, 29(7), 979–985. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-4120(03)00075-8
Shacklette, H. T., Hamilton, J. C. , Boerngen, J. G., Bowles, J. M. (1971). Elemental composition of surficial materials in the conterminus United States (pp. 574–574).
Shayannejad, M., Ghobadi, M., & Ostad-Ali-Askari, K. (2022). Modeling of Surface Flow and Infiltration During Surface Irrigation Advance Based on Numerical Solution of Saint-Venant Equations Using Preissmann’s Scheme. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 179(3), 1103–1113. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-022-02962-9
Skorbiłowicz, M., Skorbiłowicz, E., & Rogowska, W. (2021). Heavy Metal Concentrations in Roadside Soils on the Białystok-Budzisko Route in Northeastern Poland. Minerals, 11(11), 1290–1290. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11111290
Sun, H., Li, Y., Ji, Y., Yang, L., Wang, W., & Li, H. (2010). Environmental contamination and health hazard of lead and cadmium around Chatian mercury mining deposit in western Hunan Province, China. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, 20(2), 308–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1003-6326(09)60139-4
Thorpe, A., & Harrison, R. M. (2008). Sources and properties of non-exhaust particulate matter from road traffic: A review. Science of the Total Environment, 400(1–3), 270–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.06.007
Wang, M., & Zhang, H. (2018). Accumulation of Heavy Metals in Roadside Soil in Urban Area and the Related Impacting Factors. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(6), 1064–1064. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15061064
Wiseman, C. L. S., Zereini, F., & Püttmann, W. (2015). Metal and metalloid accumulation in cultivated urban soils: A medium-term study of trends in Toronto, Canada. Science of the Total Environment, 538, 564–572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.08.085
Wong, Y. J., Shimizu, Y., He, K., & Nik Sulaiman, N. M. (2020). Comparison among different ASEAN water quality indices for the assessment of the spatial variation of surface water quality in the Selangor river basin, Malaysia. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 192(10), 644. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-020-08543-4
Wong, Y. J., Shimizu, Y., Kamiya, A., Maneechot, L., Bharambe, K. P., Fong, C. S., & NikSulaiman, N. M. (2021). Application of artificial intelligence methods for monsoonal river classification in Selangor river basin, Malaysia. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 193(7), 438. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09202-y
Younas, H., & Younas, F. (2022). Wastewater Application in Agriculture-A Review. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 233(8), 329. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-022-05749-9
Zhang, Q., & Wang, C. (2020). Natural and Human Factors Affect the Distribution of Soil Heavy Metal Pollution: A Review. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 231(7), 350–350. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-020-04728-2
Zhuang, P., Zou, B., Li, N. Y., & Li, Z. A. (2009). Heavy metal contamination in soils and food crops around Dabaoshan mine in Guangdong, China: Implication for human health. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 31(6), 707–715. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-009-9248-3
Zogaj, M., & Düring, R. (2016). Plant uptake of metals, transfer factors and prediction model for two contaminated regions of Kosovo. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, 179(5), 630–640. https://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.201600022
Zogaj, M., Pacarizi, M., & Duering, R. A. (2014). Spatial distribution of heavy metals and assessment of their bioavailability in agricultural soils of Kosovo. Carpathian Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 9(1), 221–230.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Maxhuni, A., Lazo, P. & Berisha, L. Assessment of the Anthropogenic and Natural Factors on the Level of the Heavy Metals and Biogenic Elements in Soils in Kosovo. Water Air Soil Pollut 234, 452 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-023-06443-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-023-06443-0