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Volunteering and Income Inequality: Cross-National Relationships

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Abstract

Wilkinson and Pickett, in their 2009 book The Spirit Level, found that, in rich countries, income inequality was negatively associated with a range of indicators of well-being, but they did not consider the relationship with volunteering. This paper seeks to fill that gap. Using existing data sources, it shows that, among European countries, higher levels of volunteering are associated with lower levels of income inequality. The relationship is particularly strong for regular and sport-related volunteering. The basic Spirit Level thesis is therefore confirmed as applicable to volunteering. However, while the thesis involves just one theoretical explanation for the income inequality/well-being relationship, namely status anxiety, in the case of volunteering, other variables are also found to be at play, including government social spending, available leisure time and geo-historical traditions. It is concluded that, while high levels of volunteering, as a form of social capital, can be seen as one of a number of features of more equal societies, disentangling cause and effect may require a more holistic approach to understanding its contribution to the generation and sustaining of social well-being.

Résumé

Dans leur livre publié en 2009, The Spirit Level, Wilkinson et Pickett ont démontré que, dans les pays riches, l’inégalité des revenus était associée à une vaste gamme d’indicateurs de bien-être, sans toutefois tenir compte de la relation au bénévolat. Le présent article tente de combler ce manque. À l’aide de sources de données existantes, nous démontrons que, dans la plupart des pays européens, la hausse des activités de bénévolat est associée à la baisse de l’inégalité des revenus. Cette relation est particulièrement marquée dans le cadre du bénévolat ordinaire et sportif. Même si la thèse de l’ouvrage The Spirit Level n’implique qu’une explication théorique de la relation entre l’inégalité des revenus et le bien-être, notamment l’anxiété relative au statut, dans le cas du bénévolat, d’autres facteurs semblent aussi jouer un rôle, dont les dépenses gouvernementales en matière sociale, les heures de loisir à disposition et les traditions géohistoriques. Nous concluons donc que même si la hausse du bénévolat, comme forme de capital social, peut être perçue comme une des nombreuses caractéristiques des sociétés plus égales, le débrouillage des causes et effets pourrait exiger une approche plus holistique, permettant de comprendre sa contribution envers la création et la durabilité du bien-être social.

Zusammenfassung

Wilkinson und Pickett kamen in ihrem 2009 erschienenen Buch „The Spirit Level“ zu dem Schluss, dass die Einkommensungleichheit in reichen Ländern mit einer Reihe von Indikatoren für das Wohlbefinden zusammenhing. Allerdings berücksichtigten sie nicht die Verbindung zum ehrenamtlichen Engagement. Der vorliegende Beitrag möchte diese Lücke schließen. Anhand vorhandener Datenquellen wird gezeigt, dass ein höheres Maß an eherenamtlichem Engagement in europäischen Ländern in enger Verbindung mit einer geringeren Einkommensungleichheit steht. Dies trifft insbesondere im Falle regelmäßiger und sportbezogener ehrenamtlicher Tätigkeiten zu. Während die Spirit-Level-These jedoch lediglich eine einzige theoretische Erklärung für die Beziehung zwischen der Einkommensungleichheit und dem Wohlbefinden gibt, nämlich die Besorgnis über den Status, kommt man hier zu der Erkenntnis, dass im Falle des ehrenamtlichen Engagements weitere Variablen ebenso eine Rolle spielen. Darin eingeschlossen sind staatliche Sozialausgaben, verfügbare Freizeit und geohistorische Traditionen. Man kommt zu dem Schluss, dass ein hohes Maß an ehrenamtlichem Engagement als eine Form des sozialen Kapitals als eines von mehreren Merkmalen von Gesellschaften mit höherer Gleichstellung betrachtet werden kann; doch zur Erforschung von Ursache und Wirkung ist ein holistischerer Ansatz notwendig, um die Erzielung und den Erhalt des sozialen Wohlbefindens durch soziales Engagement zu verstehen.

Resumen

Wilkinson y Pickett, en su libro de 2009 The Spirit Level (El Nivel Espíritu), encontraron que, en los países ricos, la desigualdad de ingresos estaba asociada a una serie de indicadores de bienestar, pero no consideraron la relación con el voluntariado. El presente documento trata de llenar ese vacío. Utilizando fuentes de datos existentes, muestra que, entre los países europeos, los niveles más elevados de voluntariado están asociados de manera significativa a niveles menores de desigualdad de ingresos. La relación es particularmente fuerte en el voluntariado habitual y en el relacionado con los deportes. Sin embargo, mientras que la tesis de Spirit Level implica solamente una explicación teórica para la relación desigualdad de ingreso/bienestar, a saber la ansiedad por el estatus, en el caso del voluntariado, se encuentran también otras variables en juego, incluido el gasto social del gobierno, el tiempo de ocio disponible y las tradiciones geohistóricas. Se concluye que, mientras que los niveles elevados de voluntariado, como forma de capital social, pueden ser vistos como una de un número de características de sociedades más igualitarias, desentrañar la causa y el efecto puede requerir un enfoque más holístico para comprender su contribución a la generación y sostenimiento del bienestar social.

摘要

在2009年出版的书籍《Spirit Level》中,Wilkinson和Pickett认为收入不均衡与范围广泛的福祉指标相关,但未考虑与志愿的关系,本文寻求填补这一差距。使用现有的数据源表明,在欧洲国家,更高级别的志愿与低收入不均衡级别极为相关。该关系对于普通和体育相关志愿尤为相关。然而,尽管《Spirit Level》理论仅涉及收入不均衡/福祉关系的理论解释,但在志愿方面,其他变量也发挥了作用,包括政府社会支出、可用空闲时间和地理历史传统。得出的结论是,尽管以社会资本形式存在的高级别志愿可被视为更平等社会的一些特点之一,但是脱节的因果可能要求采用更加主动的方法来了解对生成和保持社会福祉的贡献。

ملخص

(Wilkinson وPickett)٬ في كتابهما 2009 مستوى الروح، وجدوا أنه في البلدان الغنية، إرتبط عدم المساواة في الدخل مع مجموعة من مؤشرات الرفاهية، لكنها لم تنظر في العلاقة بالعمل التطوعي. يسعى هذا البحث إلى سد هذه الفجوة. بإستخدام مصادر البيانات الموجودة، إنه يبين أن من بين الدول الأوروبية، مستويات أعلى من العمل التطوعي يرتبط بشكل كبير مع مستويات منخفضة من عدم المساواة في الدخل. العلاقة قوية بشكل خاص للعمل التطوعي المنتظم والمتصل بالرياضة. مع ذلك، في حين ينطوي على بحث الروح مستوى واحد فقط للشرح النظري لعلاقة عدم المساواة في الدخل/ الرفاهية، هي القلق الراهن، في حالة العمل التطوعي، تم العثور على متغيرات أخرى أيضا تكون في اللعب، بما في ذلك الإنفاق الإجتماعي الحكومي، متوفر وقت الفراغ والتقاليد الجغرافية التاريخية. يستنتج من ذلك أنه في حين، كشكل من أشكال رأس المال الإجتماعي، يمكن أن ينظر إلى مستويات عالية للعمل التطوعي، بإعتبارها واحدة من عدد من المزايا للمجتمعات أكثر مساواة، عملت على تفكيك السبب والنتيجة قد تتطلب نهج أكثر شمولية لفهم مساهمته في توليد والحفاظ على الرفاهية الإجتماعية.

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Fig. 1

Source: Reconstruction of Spirit Level Figure 4.1 (Wilkinson and Pickett, 2009, p. 52) (R 2 = 0.44, r = −.66 not shown in the original, but see Wilkinson & Pickett, 2010a, p. 310)

Fig. 2

Sources: BLS surveys via: 1974: Action (1975); 1989 via Hayghe (1991); 2002–2014: BLS (2004, 2011, 2015)

Fig. 3

Data sources: see Table 2. NB. Omitting the outlier, New Hampshire, improves the fit: R 2 = 0.34, r = −0.58)

Fig. 4

Data sources: see Table 2

Fig. 5

Data source: see Table 2

Fig. 6

Data sources: see Table 2. With outlier, Netherlands, excluded, r = 0.84

Fig. 7

Data sources: see Table 2. With outlier, Netherlands, excluded, r = −0.556

Fig. 8

Data sources: see Table 2

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Notes

  1. Of the 14 items included in the Putnam’s (2000, p.291) Social Capital Index, 11 showed declines over the 1975–1999 period. The three items showing an increase were: ‘Mean number of times did volunteer work in last year’; ‘Civic and social organizations per 1000 population’; and ‘Number of non-profit (501[c]3) organizations per 1000 population’. The latter two items seem to be very similar, but data on the two separate categories do not appear to be presented by Putnam (2000, p.50).

  2. Putnam’s percentages are from Gallup polls, but Bennett (1998, Fig. 3B) presents data from the survey source mostly used by Putnam (the DDB Needham Life Style Surveys), showing virtually no change in the volunteering rate over the 1975-97 period. US Bureau of Labor Statistics surveys indicate a decline between 1974 and 1989, and an increase to 2004 (BLS, 2015; Corporation for National & Community Service, 2007).

  3. Our estimate of correlation coefficient, r. NB. Wilkinson & Pickett also use US state-based data, in addition to cross-national data, finding a correlation of 0.59 between income inequality and their Index of Health and Social Problems (2010, p. 310).

  4. NB in Fig. 2, the measure of income distribution is a conventional Gini coefficient of income inequality (see Methods section), rather than Putnam’s (2000, p. 360, Fig. 92) own index of income equality. Furthermore, following the practice used in The Spirit Level and later in this paper, income inequality is located on the x-axis, following common practice for the independent variable.

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Veal, A.J., Nichols, G. Volunteering and Income Inequality: Cross-National Relationships. Voluntas 28, 379–399 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-016-9818-9

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