Abstract
Existing measures of school diversity models use general (abstract) scales to capture how schools approach ethnic-cultural diversity. We argue that it is important to measure such diversity models in (concrete) domain-specific ways. We first constructed a novel domain-specific scale that asks for teachers’ perceptions of practices associated with three common cultural diversity models (i.e., assimilationism, color-blindness and pluralism) across four concrete domains (i.e., language, religion, curriculum and identity) in the school context. Using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses on the responses of 309 Flemish pre- and in-service teachers, we examined whether domain-specific scales fitted the data better than more general scales. In a final step, we examined whether and how teachers’ perceptions of domain-specific diversity models were differently related to their personal diversity beliefs, diversity knowledge and self-efficacy beliefs for culturally responsive teaching. We found that domain-specific diversity model scales fitted the data better than more general scales. Moreover, we found that these domain-specific scales were related to personal and educational diversity beliefs, multicultural teaching knowledge, and self-efficacy beliefs in expected directions. Highlighting the importance of a domain-specific approach, we did find that the correlations of diversity models with teacher and personal diversity beliefs were sometimes different depending on the domain in which the diversity model was applied. Together, these results highlight that it is important to capture school diversity models in concrete and domain specific ways.
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Notes
Of course, these four domains are not mutually exclusive as it is, for instance, possible to learn about languages, religions or identities throughout the curriculum. In our scale-construction approach, however, we strove to maximally differentiate between domains, thereby including items on learning about cultural differences in languages, religions and identities within each of their respective domains and by creating a separate curriculum domain that covers all other aspects, such as the content of the history taught and the representation of people throughout textbooks (cfr. infra for more details).
It is debatable whether in North Western European contexts an assimilationist policy would mean a move towards Christianity or towards not being religious, because religiosity is often perceived as problematic in these societies (Foner & Alba, 2008). Still, since Christianity is the dominant denomination in North Western Europe and in Belgium, for instance, 70% of all schools are connected to and are partially funded by the Catholic church (Ağirdağ, 2020), it is likely that an assimilationist policy in terms of religion encompasses pressure towards Christianity.
We did not succeed in developing items in the linguistic domain for the theoretical subaspects of stressing similarities, ignoring differences or neutrality as can be seen in Table 1.
As can be seen in Table 1, in the final item pool we did not include items for linguistic critical consciousness due to foreseen problems with face validity, social desirability and/or clarity.
The high proportion of missing values on demographic variables may be because we included these questions at the very end of the survey. We had opted so for two reasons i) to reduce the number of missing values on the most relevant items (perceptions of SDMs and personal diversity beliefs, knowledge and self-efficacy beliefs), and ii) to avoid that we would make participants’ identities salient, which could influence the ways in which they respond to our questionnaire.
In several separate CFAs we tested whether teachers’ own assimilationist, color-blind and multicultural beliefs were distinct from, respectively, the extent to which they reported their school to adopt assimilationist, color-blind and pluralist SDMs in each of the domains (using the newly developed scales we describe below). This turned out to be the case for each domain-specific SDM scale we found (see infra). That is, a two factor model in which we made the distinction between personal teacher beliefs and the domain-specific teacher perceptions of the same SDM fitted the data significantly better compared to a one-factor model in which personal diversity beliefs and SDMs measured one and the same construct. We also repeated these analyses for teacher diversity beliefs, with the same result. The specific results of these analyses are available upon request from the first author.
While we refer to this scale as interculturalism identities, we acknowledge that it is also very close to the curriculum domain (also see footnote 1).
Due to the length of the survey we did not include such an item regarding forbidding Christian practices in our survey. Given that the majority of Flemish schools have a Christian denomination, it is highly unlikely that Christian symbols or practices would be forbidden in Flemish schools (Franken & Bertram-Troost, 2022), but it would be good to test whether this assumption is correct in future research. In line with this, it would also be good to include items explicitly targeting whether schools forbid not only Islamic symbols and practices but also Christian symbols and practices, as to examine whether they load on one and the same scale and hence, whether schools adopt a consistent approach towards different religions, or whether these color-blind principles tend to lead to more assimilationist practices in which only the religious symbols and practices of minoritized religions are forbidden.
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Acknowledgements
We would like to thank FWO for funding this research project. We would also like to thank Fedoua Lamrani for her help in distributing the survey and her valuable input during the construction of the item pool. Furthermore, we would also like to thank Evelyn Morreel and her students for their input.
Funding
This research is part of the ECDIS (Ethnic-Cultural Diversity in Schools) project and received funding from the Research Foundation Flanders (FWO)—Grant G067020N. It was also orally presented at the 2021 Cultural Diversity, Migration and Education conference (CDME) in Potsdam.
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Appendices
Appendix 1: Example items per theoretical subaspect for religious, curriculum and identity domains
Appendix 2: Overview scales for construct validity testing and standardized loadings of each item on the factor
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A.
Personal diversity beliefs (Levin et al., 2012)
Support for assimilationism:
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People who come to Belgium should change their behavior to be more like Belgians (0.843)
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Foreigners should try harder to adapt to Belgian cultural traditions if they want to stay in the Belgium (0.833)
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The unity of this country is weakened by people of different ethnic and cultural backgrounds sticking to their old ways (0.689)
Support for color-blindness:
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We should treat citizens of this country as Belgians and not as members of particular ethnic, religious or sexual communities (0.685)
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I do not want Belgians to be identified by their race, national origin, or religion (0.799)
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Belgian society is made up first and foremost of citizens, not of groups for the unity of the country (0.821)
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For the unity of the country, individuals should be considered Belgians before any consideration is given to their race or religion (0.713)
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It's best to judge one another as individuals rather than members of an ethnic group (0.729)
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It's important to recognize that people are basically the same regardless of their ethnicity (0.796)
Support for multiculturalism:
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We should help ethnic and racial minorities preserve their cultural heritage in Belgium (0.671)
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Immigrant parents must encourage their children to retain the culture and traditions of their homeland (0.632)
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A society that has a variety of ethnic and cultural groups is more able to tackle new problems as they occur (0.774)
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Teacher educational diversity beliefs (Hachfeld et al., 2011):
Multicultural beliefs:
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In the classroom, it is important to be responsive to differences between cultures. (0.530)
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It is important for children to learn that people from other cultures can have different values. (0.374)
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Respecting other cultures is something that children should learn as early as possible. (0.641)
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In counseling parents who have a different cultural background than I do, I try to be considerate of cultural particularities. (0.766)
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When meeting with parents of different cultural backgrounds, I spend more time trying to understand and empathize with their perspective. (0.751)
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Dealing with cultural diversity should be taught in teacher training courses. (0.540)
Egalitarian beliefs:
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Schools should aim to foster and support the similarities between students from different cultural backgrounds. (0.671)
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In the classroom, it is important that students of different origins recognize the similarities that exist between them. (0.772)
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When there are conflicts between students of different origins, they should be encouraged to resolve the argument by finding common ground. (0.839)
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Children should learn that people of different cultural origins often have a lot in common. (0.834)
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Multicultural Teaching Knowledge (Spanierman et al., 2011),:
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I am knowledgeable about particular teaching strategies that affirm the racial and ethnic identities of all students (0.530)
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I have a clear understanding of culturally responsive pedagogy (0.374)
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I am knowledgeable about racial and ethnic identity theories (0.641)
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I am knowledgeable of how historical experiences of various racial and ethnic minority groups may affect students’ learning (0.766)
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I understand the various communication styles among different racial and ethnic minority students in my classroom (0.751)
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I am knowledgeable about the various community resources within the city that I teach (0.540)
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Teacher self-efficacy for culturally responsive teaching (Siwatu et al., 2017):
How confident are you to…
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…Modify lesson plans so that students remain actively engaged throughout the entire class period or lesson. (0.739)
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…Design activities that require students to work together toward a common academic goal. (0.652)
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…Prevent disruptions by recognizing potential causes for misbehavior (0.691)
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…Manage situations in which students are defiant. (0.661)
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…Develop an effective classroom management plan based on my understanding of students’ family background. (0.677)
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…Personalize the classroom so that it is reflective of the cultural background of my students. (0.624)
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…Implement an intervention that minimizes a conflict that occurs when a students’ culturally based behavior is not consistent with school norms. (0.709)
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…Teach children self-management strategies that will assist them in regulating their classroom behavior. (0.613)
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…Restructure the curriculum so that every child can succeed, regardless of their academic history. (0.655)
See Tables
8.
Appendix 3: Results from exploratory factor analyses
See Tables
9,
10,
11,
12.
Appendix 4: Overview of all included and excluded items per domain
See
Tables 13,
14,
15,
16.
Appendix 5: CFAs to check if domains can be discerned within diversity models
See Tables
17,
18.
Appendix 6: correlations between domain-specific scales
Ass lang | Ass rel | Ass ID | CB Cur | MC lang | MC cur | Part | Int. lang | Plur. rel | Crit. Con | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ass rel | 0.37** | |||||||||
Ass ID | 0.54** | 0.36** | ||||||||
CB cur | − 0.30** | − 0.05 | − 0.30** | |||||||
MC lang | − 0.51** | − 0.31** | − 0.45** | 0.26** | ||||||
MC cur | − 0.36** | − 0.26** | − 0.43** | 0.48** | 0.49** | |||||
Part | − 0.39** | − 0.30** | − 0.41** | 0.35** | 0.55** | 0.52** | ||||
Int. lang | − 0.18** | 0.01 | − 0.18* | 0.30** | 0.29** | 0.43** | 0.27** | |||
Plur. Rel | − 0.17* | − 0.02 | − 0.24** | 0.48** | 0.23** | 0.54** | 0.32** | 0.60** | ||
Crit.Con | − 0.26** | − 0.08 | − 0.36** | 0.34** | 0.22** | 0.59** | 0.29** | 0.55** | 0.56** | |
Int. ID | − 0.37** | − 0.17* | − 0.43** | 0.57** | 0.44** | 0.78** | 0.58** | 0.50** | 0.61** | 0.62** |
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Konings, R., Ağirdağ, O. & De Leersnyder, J. School diversity models revisited: A plea and first evidence for a domain specific approach. Soc Psychol Educ 26, 1127–1179 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-023-09784-0
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-023-09784-0