Abstract
Adult education is still regarded as a strategic agent for development and socio-economic transformation in many countries. In Tanzania, a special emphasis on adult education was particularly manifested during Julius Nyerere’s presidency (1962–1985), which regarded adult education as a means of increasing popular awareness of political and social realities on the one hand and increasing the potential for social transformation on the other. This theoretical article critically examines Nyerere’s policy on adult education as articulated in his speech on the theme of adult education delivered on the eve of the 1970 New Year and its implications for contemporary Tanzania. In the course of his argument, the author demonstrates how adult education remains of crucial importance, especially for developing countries such as Tanzania.
Résumé
« Il faut d’abord éduquer les adultes » : la politique de Julius Nyerere en matière d’éducation des adultes et ses conséquences pour la Tanzanie d’aujourd’hui – De nombreux pays considèrent encore l’éducation des adultes comme un agent stratégique du développement et de la transformation socio-économique. La Tanzanie a spécialement mis en avant l’éducation des adultes durant la présidence de Julius Nyerere (1962-1985) qui voyait en elle d’une part un moyen de sensibiliser davantage la population à la réalité politique et sociale et d’autre part d’accroître le potentiel de transformation sociale. Le présent article théorique pose un regard critique sur la politique menée par Julius Nyerere en matière d’éducation des adultes, telle qu’il l’avait formulée dans son discours à l’aube du Nouvel An de 1970 et sur ses conséquences pour la Tanzanie d’aujourd’hui. Au fil de son argumentation, l’auteur démontre à quel point l’éducation des adultes revêt actuellement encore une importance décisive, en particulier dans les pays en développement comme la Tanzanie.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Tanganyika became independent from the British in 1961. In 1964, it united with Zanzibar, forming the United Republic of Tanzania.
The series of CONFINTEA conferences was launched in 1949 under the leadership of UNESCO. They are held roughly every 12 years, and the most recent one was hosted by the Kingdom of Morocco in June 2022 (UIL 2022). The acronym is derived from the conference’s French name: CONFérence INTernationale sur l’Education des Adultes.
References
Abraham, G. (2022). Nkrumah’s and Nyerere’s educational visions: What can contemporary Africa learn from them? African Journal of Education and Practice, 8(1), 20–29. https://doi.org/10.47604/ajep.1470
Barr, J. (2023). Unfinished business: Forgotten histories of women’s scholarship and the shifting status of women’s education. In M. Slowey, H. Hinzen, M. Omolewa, & M. Osborne (Eds.), Adult education and social justice: International perspectives (pp. 55–66). Florence: Firenze University Press. https://doi.org/10.36253/979-12-215-0253-4.09
Bhalalusesa, E. (2020). Reflection on adult education policy development and implementation in Tanzania since independence: Emerging issues and lessons. Papers in Education and Development, 38(1), 15–38. Retrieved 7 March 2024 from https://journals.udsm.ac.tz/index.php/ped/article/view/3782
Ejeh, P., & Arum, B. (2021). Examining conscientisation as a radical model of adult education in Nigeria. Journal of Education, Sciences and Gender Studies, 3(2), 327–343. Retrieved 7 March 2024 from https://www.sfjesgs.com/index.php/SFJESGS/article/view/195
English, L., & McKay, V. (2022). SDGs 3, 4, 5: Educating for health, literacy and gender, Convergence, 43(1), 31–40. Retrieved 7 March 2024 from https://www.convergencejournal.org/vol-43-no-1-3.pdf
Field, J. (2012). Is lifelong learning making a difference Research-based evidence on the impact of adult learning. In D. Aspin, J. Chapman, K. Evance, & R. Bagnall (Eds.), Second International Handbook of Lifelong Learning. Dordrecht: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2360-3_54
Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Transl. M. Bergman Ramos. New York: Herder and Herder.
GoT (Government of Tanzania) (1999). The Tanzania development vision 2025. Dar es Salaam: President’s Office Planning Commission (POPC). Retrieved 7 March 2024 from www.tzonline.org/pdf/theTanzaniadevelopmentvision.pdf
Hall, B. (1975). Adult education and development of socialism in Tanzania. Nairobi: East African Literature Bureau.
Hall, B. (2020). Elimu haina mwisho: Mwalimu Nyerere version of Adult Education, Papers in Education and Development, 38(1), 1–14. Retrieved 7 March 2024 from https://journals.udsm.ac.tz/index.php/ped/article/view/3781
Hall, B., Mushi, P. A., & Sanga, P. L. (2022). Reigniting hope: 50 years of adult education in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam University Press.
Heinze, F. (2023). Revitalising the national adult education programme in Tanzania. DVV International Stories, November 2023 [online web content]. Retrieved 3 April 2024 from https://www.dvv-international.de/en/our-work/stories/detail/revitalising-the-national-adult-education-programme-in-tanzania
Heinze, F., & Hinzen, F. (2022). Tanzanian and German cooperation in adult learning and education for development: A historical legacy of 50 years told through the roles of programmes, personalities and DVV international. In B. Hall, P. A. Mushi & P. L. Sanga (Eds), Reigniting hope: 50 years of adult education in Tanzania (pp. 139–156). Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam University Press. Retrieved 7 March 2024 from https://w.cradall.org/sites/default/files/table_of_contents-chapter_eight_bios-reigniting_hope_2022-opt_0.pdf
Heisel, M. (1979). Adult education in Tanzania. International Social Work, 22(3), 38–46. https://doi.org/10.1177/002087287902200305
Hinzen, H. (2006). The links between Julius K. Nyerere and the ICAE: From the first World Assembly in 1976 in Dar es Salaam to the next in 2007 in Nairobi. Adult Education and Development, 67, 69–76. Retrieved 7 March 2024 from https://www.dvv-international.de/en/adult-education-and-development/editions/aed-672006/icae7th-world-assembly/the-links-between-julius-k-nyerere-and-the-icae-from-the-first-world-assembly-in-1976-in-dares-salaam-to-the-next-in-2007-in-nairobi
Hinzen, H. (2022). Convergence and ICAE in the context of CONFINTEA and UNESCO: Memories, reflections and perspectives, Convergence, 43(1), 17–30. Retrieved 7 March 2024 from https://www.convergencejournal.org/vol-43-no-1-2.pdf
Hirschler, K., & Hofmeier, R. (2019). A decade of Tanzania: Politics, economy & society 2005–2017. Leiden: Brill.
Johnsson, A.I., Nyström, K., & Sundén, R. (1983). Adult education in Tanzania: A review. Sundbyberg: The Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA). Retrieved 7 March 2024 from https://cdn.sida.se/publications/files/-adult-education-in-tanzania---a-review.pdf
Kanukisya, B. (2020). Conception and misconception of adult education in contemporary Tanzania. Papers in Education and Development, 38(1), 35–58. Retrieved 7 March 2024 from https://journals.udsm.ac.tz/index.php/ped/article/view/3783
Kassam, Y. (1994). Julius Kambarage Nyerere (1922–1999). Prospects, 24(1–2), 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02199019
Kassam, Y., & Hall, B. (2022). Reflections on the impact of Mwalimu Nyerere’s vision on adult education and non-formal education. In B. Hall, P. A. Mushi, & P. L. Sanga (Eds.), Reigniting hope: 50 years of adult education in Tanzania (pp. 1–14). Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam University Press.
Katunzi, N. (1988). Implementing education for self-reliance through the community school in Tanzania. Doctoral thesis, University of Calgary.
Kim, K. (1986). Issues and perspectives in Tanzanian industrial development with reference to the role of SADCC. Working Paper no. 87. Notre Dame, IN: Kellogg Institute for International Studies. Retrieved 7 March 2024 from https://kellogg.nd.edu/documents/1281
Lema, E., Mbilinyi, M., & Rajani, R. (2005). Nyerere on Education: Essays and speeches, vol. 1: 1954–1998. Dar es Salaam: HakiElimu.
Lindsjö, K. (2018). Contextualising the quality of primary education in urban and rural settings: The case of Iringa Region, Tanzania. Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift/Norwegian Journal of Geography, 72(4), 234–247. https://doi.org/10.1080/00291951.2018.1492962
Lofchie, M. (2014). The political economy of Tanzania: Decline and recovery. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Mayo, P. (2012). Nyerere post-colonial approach to education. In A. Abdi (Ed.), Decolonising philosophies of Education (pp. 43–58). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6091-687-8_4
Mbogoma, G. (2018). Julius Nyerere’s Education for self-reliance in post-colonial Tanzania: A reconsideration. Master’s dissertation, University of Pretoria. Retrieved 7 March 2024 from https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/70409/Mbogoma_Julius_2018.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
Mhina, C., & Abdi, A. (2009). Mwalimu’s mission: Julius Nyerere as (adult) educator and philosopher of community development. In A. Abdi & D. Kapoor (Eds.), Global perspectives on adult education (pp. 53–70). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230617971_4
MoEST (Ministry of Education, Science and Technology) (2018). Education sector development plan (2016/17–2020/21): Tanzania mainland. Dar es Salaam: MoEST. Retrieved 7 March 2024 from https://www.globalpartnership.org/sites/default/files/2019-04-gpe-tanzania-esp.pdf
MoFP (Ministry of Finance and Planning) (2016). National five-year development plan 2016/17–2020/21: Nurturing industrialization for economic transformation and human development. Dodoma: MoFP Retrieved 7 March 2024 from https://extranet.who.int/nutrition/gina/sites/default/filesstore/FYDP2_II__April%201.pdf
Mlekwa, V. (1994). Contribution of literacy training to development in the context of Tanzania: Emerging issues and research implications. Utafiti, 1(1), 1–19. Retrieved 7 March 2024 from https://journals.udsm.ac.tz/index.php/uj/article/view/1214
Mlekwa, V. (2020). Adult literacy education for conscientisation: The life and legacy of Paulo Freire revisited. Papers in Education and Development, 38(1), 59–69. Retrieved 7 March 2024 from https://journals.udsm.ac.tz/index.php/ped/article/view/3784
Mlekwa, V. (2022). Unforgettable features of adult education in Tanzania. In B. Hall, P. A. Mushi, & P. L. Sanga (Eds.), Reigniting hope: 50 years of adult education in Tanzania (pp. 15–31). Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam University Press.
Motschilnig, R. (2012). Wider benefits of adult education: An inventory of existing studies and research, Adult Education and Development, 78, 79–88. Retrieved 7 March 2024 from https://www.dvv-international.de/en/adult-education-and-development/editions/aed-782012/benefits-of-adult-learning-and-social-inclusion/wider-benefits-of-adult-education-an-inventory-of-existing-studies-and-research/
Mulenga, D. (2001). Mwalimu Julius Nyerere: A critical review of his contributions to adult education and post-colonialism. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 20(6), 446–470. https://doi.org/10.1080/02601370110088436
Mushi, P.A.K. (1990). Origins and development of adult education innovations in Tanzania. Doctoral thesis, University of Southampton. http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/id/eprint/460437
Mushi, P. A. K. (2016). Tanzania. In B. Findsen & M. Formosa (Eds.), International perspectives on older adult education (pp. 33–43). Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24939-1_38
Mushi, P. A. (2022). Public financing of adult and non-formal education in Tanzania: Issues and challenges. In B. Hall, P. A. Mushi, & P. L. Sanga (Eds.), Reigniting hope: 50 years of adult education in Tanzania (pp. 61–83). Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam University Press.
Nasongo, J.W., & Musungu, L.L. (2009). The implications of Nyerere’s theory of education to contemporary education in Kenya. Educational research and Review, 4(4), 111–116. Retrieved 7 March 2024 from https://academicjournals.org/article/article1379602647_Nasongo%20and%20Musungu.pdf
Nyerere, J. K. (1967). Education for self-reliance. Dar es Salaam: Government Printer.
Nyerere, J. (1968). The Arusha Declaration 1967. In J. Nyerere (Ed.), Ujamaa: Essays on socialism (pp. 13–37). Dar es Salaam: Oxford University Press.
Nyerere, J. K. (1971). A presidents address to his nation. Convergence: An International Journal for Adult Education, 4(1), 30–33.
Nyerere, J. K. (1973). Adult education year. In J. K. Nyerere (Ed.), Freedom and development [Uhuru na Maendeleo]: A selection from writings and speeches, 1968–1973 (pp. 137–141). Dar es Salaam: Oxford University Press.
Nyerere, J. K. (1975). Education never ends: The 1969 and 1970 New Year’s Eve addresses to the nation. In National Adult Education Association of Tanzania (NAEAT) (Ed.), Adult education and development in Tanzania, vol. 1 (pp. 1–15). Dar es Salaam: NAEAT.
Omolewa, M., Nwachukwu, R., & Katahoire, A. (2023). Liberation, empowerment and decolonisation through adult education in Africa. In M. Slowey, H. Hinzen, M. Omolewa, & M. Osborne (Eds.), Adult education and social justice: International perspectives (pp. 95–106). Florence: Firenze University Press.
Plewis, I., & Preston, J. (2001). Evaluating the benefits of lifelong learning: A framework. London: Institute of Education, University of London.
Schreiber-Barsch, S., Bulugu, J., & Eble, L. (2023). Encountering works by Nyerere and Freire: Exploring the connections between education for liberation and education for self-reliance in contemporary radical popular education. European Journal for Research on the Education and Learning of Adults, 14(1), 79–96. https://doi.org/10.3384/rela.2000-7426.2023141
Schugurensky, D., & Myers, J. P. (2001). Cinderella and the search for the missing shoe: Latin American adult education policy and practice during the 1990s. Journal of Education Policy, 16(6), 527–546. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680930110087807
Shukia, R. (2020). Fee-free basic education policy implementation in Tanzania: A “phenomenon” worth rethinking. Huria Journal, 27(1), 115–138. Retrieved 7 March 2024 from https://www.ajol.info/index.php/huria/article/view/204346
Sumani, M.D., Kanukisya, B.K., & Mwaikokesya, J.M. (2021). Defying the odds to learn innovative practices in Uganda: Experience of small-scale farmers from Bududa District. Papers in Education, 39(2), 1–18. Retrieved 7 March 2024 from https://journals.udsm.ac.tz/index.php/ped/article/view/4634
Sumani, M. D., Kanukisya, B., & Mwaikokesya, J. M. (2023). Experiential farmer-education enigma: Unearthing approaches Ugandan educators adopt in contextualising instruction. Studies in the Education of Adults, 25(1), 177–199. https://doi.org/10.1080/02660830.2022.2099160
Tan, H., Bashir, S., & Tanaka, N. (2016). Skill use, skill deficits, and firm performance in formal sector enterprises: Evidence from the Tanzania enterprise skills survey. Policy Research Working Paper 7672. Washington, DC: World Bank Group. Retrieved 7 March 2024 from https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/24510/Skill0use00ski00skills0survey002015.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
Tuckett, A. (2022). After Marrakech. In J. Denholm, H. Hinzen, B. Németh & K.H. Phuoc (Eds), Special issue on CONFINTEA. PIMA Bulletin, no. 44, (pp. 12–14). N.P.: Promoting, Interrogating and Mobilising Adult Learning and Education (PIMA) Network. Retrieved 7 March 2024 from https://www.pimanetwork.com/post/bulletin-special-issue-confintea-vii
UIL (UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning). (2009). Global report on adult learning and education. Hamburg: UIL. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000186431
UIL. (2016). Recommendation on adult learning and education (RALE). Hamburg: UIL. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000245119
UIL. (2022). CONFINTEA VII Marrakech Framework for Action: Harnessing the transformational power of adult learning and education. Hamburg: UIL. Retrieved 3 April 2024 from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000382306
UN (United Nations). (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development. New York: UN. Retrieved 3 April 2024 from https://sdgs.un.org/sites/default/files/publications/21252030%20Agenda%20for%20Sustainable%20Development%20web.pdf
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization). (1990). World declaration on education for all and Framework for action to meet basic learning needs. Paris: UNESCO. Retrieved 4 April 2024 from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000127583
UNESCO. (2000). The Dakar Framework for action. Education for all: Meeting our collective commitments. Paris: UNESCO. Retrieved 4 April 2024 from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121147
URT (United Republic of Tanzania). (1964). The first five-year development plan. Dar es Salaam: Government Printers.
Vella, J. (1979). Community education for self-reliant development. Doctoral thesis, University of Massachusetts Amherst. https://doi.org/10.7275/t73z-qv60
Vieira do Nascimento, D. & Valdès-Cotera, R. (Eds). (2018). Promoting lifelong learning for all: The experiences of Ethiopia, Kenya, Namibia, Rwanda and the United Republic of Tanzania. Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000262940
Yule, A. (2001). From literacy to lifelong learning in Tanzania. In D. Aspin, J. Chapman, M. Hatton, & Y. Sawano (Eds.), International handbook of lifelong learning (pp. 663–680). Dordrecht: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0916-4_33
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Mwaikokesya, M. “First we must educate adults”: Nyerere’s policy on adult education and its implications for modern-day Tanzania. Int Rev Educ 70, 343–357 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-024-10079-5
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-024-10079-5