Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The contribution of vocabulary knowledge and spelling to the reading comprehension of adolescents who are and are not English language learners

  • Published:
Reading and Writing Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study examined the contributions of vocabulary and spelling to the reading comprehension of students in grades 6–10 who were and were not classified as English language learners. Results indicate that vocabulary accounted for greater between-grade differences and unique variance (ΔR 2 = .11–.31) in comprehension as compared to spelling (ΔR 2 = .01–.09). However, the contribution of spelling to comprehension was higher in the upper grade levels included in this cross-sectional analysis and functioned as a mediator of the impact of vocabulary knowledge at all levels. The direct effect of vocabulary was strong but lower in magnitude at each successive grade level from .58 in grade 6 to .41 in grade 10 while the indirect effect through spelling increased in magnitude at each successive grade level from .09 in grade 6 to .16 in grade 10. There were no significant differences between the language groups in the magnitude of the indirect impact, suggesting both groups of students relied more on both sources of lexical information in higher grades as compared to students in lower grades.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Students are identified as LEP or ELL in a two-step process. First, a caretaker must report on the school’s home language survey that a language other than English is spoken in the home. Second, the student’s listening, speaking, reading, and writing proficiency (as assessed by a validated measure such as the CELLA) must be below the average English proficiency level of English speaking students at the same age and grade. In Florida, these steps are governed by Rules 6A-6.0901 and 6A-6.0902.

References

  • Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, S., & Bond, R. (2009). Lexical expertise and reading skill: Bottom-up and top-down processing of lexical ambiguity. Reading and Writing, 22, 687–711. doi:10.1007/s11145-008-9137-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, S., & Lo, S. (2012). Not all skilled readers have cracked the code: Individual differences in masked form priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 38, 152–163. doi:10.1037/a0024953.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anglin, J. M., Miller, G. A., & Wakefield, P. C. (1993). Vocabulary development: A morphological analysis. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 58(10), i+iii+v-vi+1–186.

  • Asparouhov, T. (2006). General multi-level modeling with sampling weights. Communications in Statistics: Theory and Methods, 35, 439–460. doi:10.1080/03610920500476598.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • August, D., Carlo, M., Dressler, C., & Snow, C. (2005). The critical role of vocabulary development for English language learners. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 20, 50–57. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5826.2005.00120.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bebout, L. (1985). An error analysis of misspellings made by learners of English as a first and as a second language. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 14, 569–593. doi:10.1007/BF01067386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benjamini, Y., & Hochberg, Y. (1995). Controlling the false discovery rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series B (Methodological), 57, 289–300. doi:10.2307/2346101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V. W., & Abbott, R. D. (2010). Listening comprehension, oral expression, reading comprehension, and written expression: Related yet unique language systems in grades 1, 3, 5, and 7. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 635–651. doi:10.1037/a0019319.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V. W., Abbott, R. D., Nagy, W., & Carlisle, J. (2010). Growth in phonological, orthographic, and morphological awareness in grades 1 to 6. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 39, 141–163. doi:10.1007/s10936-009-9130-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowers, P. N., Kirby, J. R., & Deacon, S. H. (2010). The effects of morphological instruction on literacy skills: A systematic review of the literature. Review of Educational Research, 80, 144–179. doi:10.3102/0034654309359353.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Braze, D., Tabor, W., Shankweiler, D. P., & Menci, W. E. (2007). Speaking up for vocabulary: Reading skill differences in young adults. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40, 226–243. doi:10.1177/00222194070400030401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bruck, M. (1990). Word recognition skills of adults with childhood diagnoses of dyslexia. Developmental Psychology, 26, 439–454. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.26.3.439.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlo, M. S., August, D., McLaughlin, B., Snow, C. E., Dressler, C., Lippman, D. N., et al. (2004). Closing the gap: Addressing the vocabulary needs of English-language learners in bilingual and mainstream classrooms. Reading Research Quarterly, 39, 188–215. doi:10.1598/RRQ.39.2.3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Castles, A., Davis, C., Cavalot, P., & Forster, K. (2007). Tracking the acquisition of orthographic skills in developing readers: Masked priming effects. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 97, 165–182. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2007.01.006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Catts, H. W., Adlof, S. M., & Weismer, S. E. (2006). Language deficits in poor comprehenders: A case for the simple view of reading. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing, 49, 278–293. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2006/023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, R., & Vellutino, F. R. (1997). Prediction of reading ability: A cross-validation study of the simple view of reading. Journal of Literacy Research, 29, 1–24. doi:10.1080/10862969709547947.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, V. J. (1997). L2 users and English spelling. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 18, 474–488. doi:10.1080/01434639708666335.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooke, N. L., Slee, J. M., & Young, C. A. (2008). How is contextualized spelling used to support reading in first-grade core reading programs? Reading Improvement, 45(1), 26–45. doi:10.2307/23014367.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coxhead, A. (2000). A new academic word list. TESOL Quarterly, 34, 213–238. doi:10.2307/3587951.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cromley, J. G., & Azevedo, R. (2007). Testing and refining the direct and inferential mediation model of reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(2), 311–325. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.2.311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dale, E., & O’Rourke, J. (1981). Living word vocabulary. Chicago, IL: World Book/Childcraft International.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, D. M. (2007). Peabody picture vocabulary test (4th ed.). Bloomington, MN: NCS Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Educational Testing Service. (2005). Comprehensive English Language Learning Assessment CELLA. Technical report. Princeton, NJ: Author.

  • Ehri, L. C. (2000). Learning to read and learning to spell: Two sides of a coin. Topics in Language Disorders, 20(3), 19–36. doi:10.1097/00011363-20020030-00005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elleman, A., Lindo, E., Morphy, P., & Compton, D. (2009). The impact of vocabulary instruction on passage-level comprehension of school-age children: A meta-analysis. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 2, 1–44. doi:10.1080/19345740802539200.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farnia, F., & Geva, E. (2013). Growth and predictors of change in English language learners’ reading comprehension. Journal of Research in Reading, 36, 389–421. doi:10.1111/jrir.12003.

    Google Scholar 

  • Florida Department of Education. (2001). FCAT handbook—A resource for educators. Tallahassee, FL: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Florida Department of Education. (2005). FCAT briefing book. Tallahassee, FL: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Florida Department of Education. (2009). Florida Assessments for Instruction in Reading (FAIR). Tallahassee: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Florida Department of Education. (2010). Reading scores statewide comparison for 2001 to 2010 (data file). http://fcat.fldoe.org/mediapacket/2010/pdf/2010ReadingComparison.pdf.

  • Florit, E., & Cain, K. (2011). The simple view of reading: Is it valid for different types of alphabetic orthographies? Educational Psychology Review, 23, 553–576. doi:10.1007/s10648-011-9175-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foorman, B. R., & Ciancio, D. J. (2005). Screening for secondary intervention: Concept and context. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 494–499. doi:10.1177/00222194050380060401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foorman, B. R., & Petscher, Y. (2010). Development of spelling and differential relations to text reading in grades 3–12. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 36, 7–20. doi:10.1177/1534508410379844.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foorman, B., Torgesen, J., Crawford, E., & Petscher, Y. (2009). Assessments to guide reading instruction in K-12: Decisions supported by the new Florida system. Perspectives on Language and Literacy, 35(5), 13–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foorman, B., Petscher, Y., & Bishop, M. D. (2012). The incremental variance of morphological knowledge to reading comprehension in grades 3–10 beyond prior reading comprehension, spelling, and text reading efficiency. Learning and Individual Differences, 22, 792–798. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2012.07.009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foorman, B. R., Koon, S., Petscher, Y., Mitchell, A., & Truckenmiller, A. (2015). Examining general and specific factors in the dimensionality of oral language and reading in 4th–10th grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107, 884–899. doi:10.1037/edu0000026.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frith, U. (1985). Beneath the surface of surface dyslexia. In K. E. Patterson, J. C. Marshall, & M. Coltheart (Eds.), Surface dyslexia: Neuropsychological and cognitive studies of phonological reading (pp. 301–330). London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garcia, J. R., & Cain, K. (2014). Decoding and reading comprehension: A meta-analysis to identify which reader and assessment characteristics influence the strength of the relationship in English. Review of Educational Research, 84(1), 74–111. doi:10.3102/0034654313499616.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7, 6–10. doi:10.1177/074193258600700104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harm, M., & Seidenberg, M. (1999). Phonology, reading acquisition, and dyslexia: Insights from connectionist models. Psychological Review, 106, 491–528. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.106.3.491.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hauerwas, L. B., & Walker, J. (2003). Spelling of inflected verb morphology in children with spelling deficits. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 18, 25–35. doi:10.1111/1540-5826.00055.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoff, E. (2006). How social contexts support and shape language development. Developmental Review, 26, 55–88. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2005.11.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoover, W. A., & Gough, P. B. (1990). The simple view of reading. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 2, 127–160. doi:10.1007/BF00401799.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keenan, J. M., & Betjemann, R. S. (2007). Comprehension of single words: The role of semantics in word identification and reading disability. In E. Grigorenko & A. Naples (Eds.), Single-word reading: Behavioral and biological perspectives. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kieffer, M. J., & Lesaux, N. K. (2008). The role of derivational morphology in the reading comprehension of Spanish-speaking English language learners. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 21, 783–804. doi:10.1007/s11145-007-9092-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landi, N. (2010). An examination of the relationship between reading comprehension, higher-level and lower-level reading sub-skills in adults. Reading and Writing, 23, 701–717. doi:10.1007/s11145-009-9180-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laufer, B. (2001). Vocabulary acquisition in a second language: Do learners really acquire most vocabulary by reading? Some empirical evidence. Canadian Modern Language Review, 59, 567–587. doi:10.3138/cmlr.59.4.567.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laufer, B., & Yano, Y. (2001). Understanding unfamiliar words in a text: Do L2 learners understand how much they don’t understand? Reading in a Foreign Language, 13, 549–566.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leach, J., Scarborough, H., & Rescorla, L. (2003). Late-emerging reading disabilities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 211–224. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.95.2.211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lesaux, N. K., Keiffer, M. J., Faller, S. E., & Kelley, J. G. (2010). The effectiveness and ease of implementation of an academic vocabulary intervention for linguistically diverse students in urban middle schools. Reading Research Quarterly, 45, 196–228. doi:10.1598/RRQ.45.2.3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lipka, O., Lesaux, N. K., & Siegel, L. S. (2006). Retrospective analysis of the reading development of grade 4 students with reading disabilities: Risk status and profile over 5 years. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39, 364–378. doi:10.1177/00222194060390040901.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., & Williams, J. (2004). Confidence limits for the indirect effect: Distribution of the product and resampling methods. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39, 99–128. doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr3901_4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mancilla-Martinez, J., Kieffer, M. J., Biancarosa, G., Christodoulou, J. A., & Snow, C. E. (2011). Investigating English reading comprehension growth in adolescent language minority learners: Some insights from the simple view. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 24, 339–354. doi:10.1007/s11145-009-9215-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manis, F. R., Lindsey, K. A., & Bailey, C. E. (2004). Development of reading in grades K-2 in Spanish-speaking English-language learners’ word decoding and reading comprehension. Reading and Writing, 20, 691–719.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2010). Mplus user’s guide (6th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.

  • Nagy, W., Berninger, V. W., & Abbott, R. D. (2006). Contributions of morphology beyond phonology to literacy outcomes of upper elementary and middle-school students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 134–147. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.98.1.134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Nation, K. (2009). Form-meaning links in the development of visual word recognition. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Section B: Biological Sciences, 364, 3665–3674. doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2009). The nation’s report card: Reading 2009 (NCES 2010–458). Washington, DC: Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.

  • National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2010). The nation’s report card: Grade 12 reading and mathematics 2009 national and pilot state results (NCES 2011–455). Washington, DC: Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.

  • National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2013). The nation’s report card: A first look: 2013 mathematics and reading. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.

  • Nippold, M. A., & Sun, L. (2008). Knowledge of morphologically complex words: A developmental study of older children and young adolescents. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 39, 365–373.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nunes, T., Bryant, P., & Barros, R. (2012). The development of word recognition and its significance for comprehension and fluency. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104, 959–973. doi:10.1037/a0027412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perfetti, C. A. (2007). Reading ability: Lexical quality to comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 11, 357–383. doi:10.1080/10888430701530730.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perfetti, C. A., & Hart, L. (2002). The lexical quality hypothesis. In L. Verhoeven, C. Elbro, & P. Reitsma (Eds.), Precursors of functional literacy (pp. 189–213). Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Preacher, K. J., Rucker, D. D., & Hayes, A. F. (2007). Assessing moderated mediation hypotheses: Theory, methods, and prescriptions. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 42, 185–227. doi:10.1080/00273170701341316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Proctor, C. P., Carlo, M., August, D., & Snow, C. (2005). Native Spanish-speaking children reading in English: Toward a model of comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 246–256. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.97.2.246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raftery, A. E. (1995). Bayesian model selection in social research (with discussion). Sociological Methodology, 25, 111–196.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ricketts, J., Bishop, D. V. M., & Nation, K. (2009). Orthographic facilitation in oral vocabulary acquisition. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62, 1948–1966. doi:10.1080/17470210802696104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robbins, K. P., Hosp, J. L., Hosp, M. K., & Flynn, L. J. (2010). Assessing specific grapho-phonemic skills in elementary students. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 36, 21–34. doi:10.1177/1534508410379845.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, J., & Ehri, L. (2008). The mnemonic value of orthography for vocabulary learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 175–191. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.100.1.175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sabitini, J. P., Sawaki, Y., Shore, J. R., & Scarborough, H. S. (2010). Relationships among reading skills of adults with low literacy. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43, 122–138. doi:10.1177/0022219409359343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schatschneider, C., Buck, J., Wagner, R., Hassler, L., Hecht, S., & Powell-Smith, K. (2004). A multivariate study of individual differences in performance on the reading portion of the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test: A brief report. Technical report no. 5. Tallahassee, FL: Florida Center for Reading Research.

  • Seymour, P. H. K. (1997). Foundations of orthographic development. In C. A. Perfetti, L. Rieben, & M. Fayol (Eds.), Learning to spell: Research, theory, and practice among languages (pp. 319–337). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sun-Alperin, M. K., & Wang, M. (2011). Cross-language transfer of phonological and orthographic processing skills from Spanish L1 to English L2. Reading and Writing, 24, 591–614. doi:10.1007/s11145-009-9221-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tannenbaum, K. R., Torgesen, J. K., & Wagner, R. K. (2006). Relationships between word knowledge and reading comprehension in third-grade children. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10, 381–398. doi:10.1207/s1532799xssr1004_3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tunmer, W., & Chapman, J. (2012). The simple view of reading redux: Vocabulary knowledge and the independent components hypothesis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 45, 453–466. doi:10.117/0022219411432685.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Valencia, S. W., & Buly, M. R. (2004). Behind test scores: What struggling readers really need. Reading Teacher, 57, 520–531.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verhoeven, L., van Leeuwe, J., & Vermeer, A. (2011). Vocabulary growth and reading development across the elementary school years. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15, 8–25. doi:10.1080/10888438.2011.536125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, R. K., Herrera, S., Spencer, M., & Quinn, J. (2015). Reconsidering the Simple View of Reading in an intriguing case of equivalent models: Commentary on Tunmer and Chapman (2012). Journal of Learning Disabilities, 48, 115–119. doi:10.1177/0022219414544544.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiser, B., & Mathes, P. (2011). Using encoding instruction to improve the reading and spelling performance of elementary students at risk for literacy difficulties: A best-evidence synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 81, 170–200. doi:10.3102/0034654310396719.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young, K. (2007). Developmental stage theory of spelling: Analysis of consistency across four spelling-related activities. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, 30, 203–220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeno, S. M., Ivens, S. H., Millard, R. T., & Duvvuri, R. (1995). The educator’s word frequency guide. New York: Touchstone Applied Science Associates.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by Grant P50HD052120 from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Grant R305A100301 from the Institute of Education Sciences in the U.S. Department of Education, and Grant R305F100005 from the Institute of Education Sciences. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, the National Institutes of Health, or the Institute of Education Sciences.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Iowa Reading Research Center, University of Iowa, 133 Lindquist Center South, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA

    Deborah K. Reed

  2. Florida Center for Reading Research, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA

    Yaacov Petscher & Barbara R. Foorman

Authors
  1. Deborah K. Reed
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Yaacov Petscher
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Barbara R. Foorman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Deborah K. Reed.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Reed, D.K., Petscher, Y. & Foorman, B.R. The contribution of vocabulary knowledge and spelling to the reading comprehension of adolescents who are and are not English language learners. Read Writ 29, 633–657 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-015-9619-3

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-015-9619-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation