Abstract
Smart devices such as smartphones, smart watches, smart glasses, and transparent control circuits have captured most of the electronics market worldwide. The various smart applications and supporting accessories need an energy storage system with high energy density, highly efficient and transparent energy in nature. Transparent conducting supercapacitors (TCSs) are the most anticipated energy storage system for all such applications. The electrode and electrolyte are the key components of TCSs, which are solely responsible for delivering high energy density and high performance at load. In this regard, in the present review, the basic principle, requirement, and the performance parameters of TCSs are discussed in detail. In addition, comprehensive analysis has been given on recent advances in different materials such as carbon-based material, graphene, metal oxides, and conducting polymers and their composites used as electrodes for TCSs. The focus of this review is concerned with the major difficulties arising in fabrication of transparent electrodes for TCSs. In concern with the electrode and electrolyte, we critically discussed the different methods for enhancing the electrochemical performance and energy density of TCSs. Finally, we have highlighted the few shortcomings and future scope of the TCSs for current energy storage systems.
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11051-021-05221-5/MediaObjects/11051_2021_5221_Fig1_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11051-021-05221-5/MediaObjects/11051_2021_5221_Fig2_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11051-021-05221-5/MediaObjects/11051_2021_5221_Fig3_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11051-021-05221-5/MediaObjects/11051_2021_5221_Fig4_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11051-021-05221-5/MediaObjects/11051_2021_5221_Fig5_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11051-021-05221-5/MediaObjects/11051_2021_5221_Fig6_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11051-021-05221-5/MediaObjects/11051_2021_5221_Fig7_HTML.png)
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bae J, Song MK, Park YJ, Kim JM, Liu M, Wang ZL (2011) Fiber supercapacitors made of nanowire-fiber hybrid structures for wearable/flexible energy storage. Angew Chem Int Ed 50:1683–1687. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201006062
Bockris JO, Devanathan MAV, Müller K (1965) On the structure of charged interfaces††Reprinted with minor changes from Proc Roy. Soc., A., 274, 55–79, 541 (1963). In: Friend JA, Gutmann F (eds) Electrochemistry. Pergamon, pp 832–863
Borysiewicz MA, Ekielski M, Ogorzałek Z, Wzorek M, Kaczmarski J, Wojciechowski T (2017a) Highly transparent supercapacitors based on ZnO/MnO2 nanostructures. Nanoscale 9:7577–7587. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7NR01320E
Borysiewicz MA, Wzorek M, Ekielski M et al (2017b) Tuning transparent supercapacitor performance by controlling the morphology of its ZnO electrodes. Acta Phys Pol A 131:1550–1553. https://doi.org/10.12693/APhysPolA.131.1550
Borysiewicz MA, Wzorek M, Myśliwiec M, Kaczmarski J, Ekielski M (2016) MnO2 ultrathin films deposited by means of magnetron sputtering: relationships between process conditions, structural properties and performance in transparent supercapacitors. Superlattice Microst 100:1213–1220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spmi.2016.11.002
Chen C-C, Dou L, Zhu R, Chung CH, Song TB, Zheng YB, Hawks S, Li G, Weiss PS, Yang Y (2012) Visibly transparent polymer solar cells produced by solution processing. ACS Nano 6:7185–7190. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn3029327
Chen F, Wan P, Xu H, Sun X (2017) Flexible transparent supercapacitors based on hierarchical nanocomposite films. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 9:17865–17871. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.7b02460
Chen P-C, Shen G, Sukcharoenchoke S, Zhou C (2009) Flexible and transparent supercapacitor based on In2O3 nanowire/carbon nanotube heterogeneous films. Appl Phys Lett 94:043113. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3069277
Chen T, Peng H, Durstock M, Dai L (2014a) High-performance transparent and stretchable all-solid supercapacitors based on highly aligned carbon nanotube sheets. Sci Rep 4:3612. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep03612
Chen T, Xue Y, Roy AK, Dai L (2014b) Transparent and stretchable high-performance supercapacitors based on wrinkled graphene electrodes. ACS Nano 8:1039–1046. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn405939w
Chen Y, Fu X-Y, Yue Y-Y, Zhang N, Feng J, Sun HB (2019) Flexible and transparent supercapacitor based on ultrathin Au/graphene composite electrodes. Appl Surf Sci 467–468:104–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2018.10.093
Choudhary N, Li C, Moore J, Nagaiah N, Zhai L, Jung Y, Thomas J (2017) Asymmetric supercapacitor electrodes and devices. Adv Mater 29:1605336. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201605336
Chun S, Son W, Lee G, Kim SH, Park JW, Kim SJ, Pang C, Choi C (2019) Single-layer graphene-based transparent and flexible multifunctional electronics for self-charging power and touch-sensing systems. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 11:9301–9308. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.8b20143
Cui Z, Gao Y (2015) 27.5L: Late-news paper: hybrid printing of high resolution metal mesh as a transparent conductor for touch panels and OLED displays. SID Symp Dig Tech Pap 46:398–400. https://doi.org/10.1002/sdtp.10366
Du H, Pan Y, Zhang X et al (2019) Silver nanowire/nickel hydroxide nanosheet composite for a transparent electrode and all-solid-state supercapacitor. Nanoscale Adv 1:140–146. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8NA00110C
Fan X, Chen T, Dai L (2014) Graphene networks for high-performance flexible and transparent supercapacitors. RSC Adv 4:36996–37002. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4RA05076B
Gao K, Shao Z, Wu X, Wang X, Zhang Y, Wang W, Wang F (2013a) Paper-based transparent flexible thin film supercapacitors. Nanoscale 5:5307–5311. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3NR00674C
Gao Y, Zhou YS, Xiong W, Jiang LJ, Mahjouri-samani M, Thirugnanam P, Huang X, Wang MM, Jiang L, Lu YF (2013b) Transparent, flexible, and solid-state supercapacitors based on graphene electrodes. APL Mater 1:012101. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4808242
Ge J, Cheng G, Chen L (2011) Transparent and flexible electrodes and supercapacitors using polyaniline/single-walled carbon nanotube composite thin films. Nanoscale 3:3084–3088. https://doi.org/10.1039/C1NR10424A
Ginting RT, Ovhal MM, Kang J-W (2018) A novel design of hybrid transparent electrodes for high performance and ultra-flexible bifunctional electrochromic-supercapacitors. Nano Energy 53:650–657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2018.09.016
Görrn P, Sander M, Meyer J, Kröger M, Becker E, Johannes HH, Kowalsky W, Riedl T (2006) Towards see-through displays: fully transparent thin-film transistors driving transparent organic light-emitting diodes. Adv Mater 18:738–741. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.200501957
Gouy M (1910) Sur la constitution de la charge électrique à la surface d’un électrolyte. J Phys Theor Appl 9:457–468. https://doi.org/10.1051/jphystap:019100090045700
Grahame DC (1947) The electrical double layer and the theory of electrocapillarity. Chem Rev 41:441–501. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr60130a002
Huang X, Zhang H, Li N (2017) Symmetric transparent and flexible supercapacitor based on bio-inspired graphene-wrapped Fe2O3 nanowire networks. Nanotechnology 28:075402. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6528/aa542a
Jiang S, Hou P-X, Chen M-L, Wang BW, Sun DM, Tang DM, Jin Q, Guo QX, Zhang DD, du JH, Tai KP, Tan J, Kauppinen EI, Liu C, Cheng HM (2018) Ultrahigh-performance transparent conductive films of carbon-welded isolated single-wall carbon nanotubes. Sci Adv 4:eaap9264. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aap9264
Jost K, Stenger D, Perez CR, McDonough JK, Lian K, Gogotsi Y, Dion G (2013) Knitted and screen printed carbon-fiber supercapacitors for applications in wearable electronics. Energy Environ Sci 6:2698–2705. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3EE40515J
Jung HY, Karimi MB, Hahm MG, Ajayan PM, Jung YJ (2012) Transparent, flexible supercapacitors from nano-engineered carbon films. Sci Rep 2:773. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep00773
Kanninen P, Luong ND, Sinh LH, Anoshkin IV, Tsapenko A, Seppälä J, Nasibulin AG, Kallio T (2016) Transparent and flexible high-performance supercapacitors based on single-walled carbon nanotube films. Nanotechnology 27:235403. https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-4484/27/23/235403
Kiruthika S, Sow C, Kulkarni GU (2017) Transparent and flexible supercapacitors with networked electrodes. Small 13:1701906. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.201701906
Kumar A, Saikia D, Singh F, Avasthi DK (2006) Li3+ ion irradiation effects on ionic conduction in P(VDF–HFP)–(PC+DEC)–LiClO4 gel polymer electrolyte system. Solid State Ionics 177:2575–2579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssi.2006.04.015
Lalia BS, Yamada K, Hundal MS, Park JS, Park GG, Lee WY, Kim CS, Sekhon SS (2009) Physicochemical studies of PVdF–HFP-based polymer–ionic liquid composite electrolytes. Appl Phys A Mater Sci Process 96:661–670. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00339-009-5129-y
Lee H, Hong S, Lee J, Suh YD, Kwon J, Moon H, Kim H, Yeo J, Ko SH (2016a) Highly stretchable and transparent supercapacitor by Ag–Au core–shell nanowire network with high electrochemical stability. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 8:15449–15458. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.6b04364
Lee J, Lee P, Lee HB, Hong S, Lee I, Yeo J, Lee SS, Kim TS, Lee D, Ko SH (2013) Room-temperature nanosoldering of a very long metal nanowire network by conducting-polymer-assisted joining for a flexible touch-panel application. Adv Funct Mater 23:4171–4176. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201203802
Lee K, Lee H, Shin Y, Yoon Y, Kim D, Lee H (2016b) Highly transparent and flexible supercapacitors using graphene-graphene quantum dots chelate. Nano Energy 26:746–754. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2016.06.030
Li D, Liu X, Chen X, Lai WY, Huang W (2019a) A simple strategy towards highly conductive silver-nanowire inks for screen-printed flexible transparent conductive films and wearable energy-storage devices. Adv Mater Technol 4:1900196. https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.201900196
Li G, Gao L, Li L, Guo L (2019b) An electrochromic and self-healing multi-functional supercapacitor based on PANI/nw-WO2.7/Au NPs electrode and hydrogel electrolyte. J Alloys Compd 786:40–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2018.12.142
Li H, Zhao Q, Wang W, Dong H, Xu D, Zou G, Duan H, Yu D (2013) Novel planar-structure electrochemical devices for highly flexible semitransparent power generation/storage sources. Nano Lett 13:1271–1277. https://doi.org/10.1021/nl4000079
Li J, Shi Q, Shao Y, Hou C, Li Y, Zhang Q, Wang H (2019c) Cladding nanostructured AgNWs-MoS2 electrode material for high-rate and long-life transparent in-plane micro-supercapacitor. Energy Storage Mater 16:212–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2018.05.013
Li N, Huang X, Zhang H (2017) High energy density transparent and flexible asymmetric supercapacitor based on a transparent metal hydroxides@graphene micro-structured film via a scalable gas-liquid diffusion method. J Alloys Compd 712:194–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2017.04.076
Li N, Yang G, Sun Y, Song H, Cui H, Yang G, Wang C (2015) Free-standing and transparent graphene membrane of polyhedron box-shaped basic building units directly grown using a NaCl template for flexible transparent and stretchable solid-state supercapacitors. Nano Lett 15:3195–3203. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b00364
Li Y, Meng L, Yang YM et al (2016) High-efficiency robust perovskite solar cells on ultrathin flexible substrates. Nat Commun 7:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms10214
Lin H, Li L, Ren J, Cai Z, Qiu L, Yang Z, Peng H (2013) Conducting polymer composite film incorporated with aligned carbon nanotubes for transparent, flexible and efficient supercapacitor. Sci Rep 3:1353. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep01353
Liu J, Shen G, Zhao S, He X, Zhang C, Jiang T, Jiang J, Chen B (2019a) A one-dimensional Ag NW@NiCo/NiCo(OH)2 core–shell nanostructured electrode for a flexible and transparent asymmetric supercapacitor. J Mater Chem A 7:8184–8193. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9TA01303B
Liu X, Li D, Chen X, Lai WY, Huang W (2018) Highly transparent and flexible all-solid-state supercapacitors based on ultralong silver nanowire conductive networks. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 10:32536–32542. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.8b10138
Liu Y-H, Jiang Z-Y, Xu J-L (2019b) Self-standing metallic mesh with MnO2 multiscale microstructures for high-capacity flexible transparent energy storage. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 11:24047–24056. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b05033
Nam I, Park S, Kim G-P, Park J, Yi J (2013) Transparent and ultra-bendable all-solid-state supercapacitors without percolation problems. Chem Sci 4:1663–1667. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3SC22011G
Niu Z, Dong H, Zhu B, Li J, Hng HH, Zhou W, Chen X, Xie S (2013a) Highly stretchable, integrated supercapacitors based on single-walled carbon nanotube films with continuous reticulate architecture. Adv Mater 25:1058–1064. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201204003
Niu Z, Liu L, Sherrell P, et al (2013b) Flexible supercapacitorsis—development of bendable carbon architectures. In: Nanotechnology for Sustainable Energy. American Chemical Society, pp 101–141
Niu Z, Zhou W, Chen J, Feng G, Li H, Hu Y, Ma W, Dong H, Li J, Xie S (2013c) A repeated halving approach to fabricate ultrathin single-walled carbon nanotube films for transparent supercapacitors. Small 9:518–524. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.201201587
Ok K-H, Kim J, Park S-R, Kim Y, Lee CJ, Hong SJ, Kwak MG, Kim N, Han CJ, Kim JW (2015) Ultra-thin and smooth transparent electrode for flexible and leakage-free organic light-emitting diodes. Sci Rep 5:9464. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep09464
Gilshteyn EP, Kallio T, Kanninen P et al (2016) Stretchable and transparent supercapacitors based on aerosol synthesized single-walled carbon nanotube films. RSC Adv 6:93915–93921. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6RA20319A
Pradhan DK, Samantaray BK, Choudhary RNP, Thakur AK (2005) Effect of plasticizer on structure—property relationship in composite polymer electrolytes. J Power Sources 139:384–393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2004.05.050
Ramesh S, Teh GB, Louh R-F, Hou YK, Sin PY, Yi LJ (2010) Preparation and characterization of plasticized high molecular weight PVC-based polymer electrolytes. Sadhana 35:87–95. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12046-010-0002-4
Rodríguez J, Navarrete E, Dalchiele EA, Sánchez L, Ramos-Barrado JR, Martín F (2013) Polyvinylpyrrolidone–LiClO4 solid polymer electrolyte and its application in transparent thin film supercapacitors. J Power Sources 237:270–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.03.043
Sheng H, Zhang X, Ma Y, Wang P, Zhou J, Su Q, Lan W, Xie E, Zhang CJ (2019) Ultrathin, wrinkled, vertically aligned Co(OH)2 nanosheets/Ag nanowires hybrid network for flexible transparent supercapacitor with high performance. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 11:8992–9001. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.8b18609
Shin SS, Yang WS, Noh JH, Suk JH, Jeon NJ, Park JH, Kim JS, Seong WM, Seok SI (2015) High-performance flexible perovskite solar cells exploiting Zn 2 SnO 4 prepared in solution below 100 °C. Nat Commun 6:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms8410
Singh SB, Singh TI, Kim NH, Lee JH (2019) A core–shell MnO2@Au nanofiber network as a high-performance flexible transparent supercapacitor electrode. J Mater Chem A 7:10672–10683. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9TA00778D
Stern O (1924) Zur Theorie Der Elektrolytischen Doppelschicht. Z Für Elektrochem Angew Phys Chem 30:508–516. https://doi.org/10.1002/bbpc.192400182
Susan MABH, Kaneko T, Noda A, Watanabe M (2005) Ion gels prepared by in situ radical polymerization of vinyl monomers in an ionic liquid and their characterization as polymer electrolytes. J Am Chem Soc 127:4976–4983. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja045155b
Wang S, Hsia B, Carraro C, Maboudian R (2014) High-performance all solid-state micro-supercapacitor based on patterned photoresist-derived porous carbon electrodes and an ionogel electrolyte. J Mater Chem A 2:7997–8002. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4TA00570H
Wu C, Kim TW, Li F, Guo T (2016) Wearable electricity generators fabricated utilizing transparent electronic textiles based on polyester/Ag nanowires/graphene core–shell nanocomposites. ACS Nano 10:6449–6457. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.5b08137
Xu J-L, Liu Y-H, Gao X, Shen S, Wang SD (2019) Toward wearable electronics: a lightweight all-solid-state supercapacitor with outstanding transparency, foldability and breathability. Energy Storage Mater 22:402–409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2019.02.013
Xu K (2004) Nonaqueous liquid electrolytes for lithium-based rechargeable batteries. Chem Rev 104:4303–4418. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr030203g
Xu P, Kang J, Choi J-B, Suhr J, Yu J, Li F, Byun JH, Kim BS, Chou TW (2014) Laminated ultrathin chemical vapor deposition graphene films based stretchable and transparent high-rate supercapacitor. ACS Nano 8:9437–9445. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn503570j
Yang L, Hu J, Lei G, Liu H (2014) Ionic liquid-gelled polyvinylidene fluoride/polyvinyl acetate polymer electrolyte for solid supercapacitor. Chem Eng J 258:320–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2014.05.149
Yao P, Xie S, Ye M, Yu R, Liu Q, Yan D, Cai W, Guo W, Liu XY (2017) Smart electrochromic supercapacitors based on highly stable transparent conductive graphene/CuS network electrodes. RSC Adv 7:29088–29095. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7RA04476C
Yoonessi M, Borenstein A, El-Kady MF et al (2019) Hybrid transparent PEDOT:PSS molybdenum oxide battery-like supercapacitors. ACS Appl Energy Mater 2:4629–4639. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.8b02258
Yokel R, Coskun S, Kalay YE, Unalan HE (2016) Flexible, silver nanowire network nickel hydroxide core-shell electrodes for supercapacitors. J Power Sources 328:167–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.08.008
Yokel R, Sarioba Z, Cirpan A et al (2014) Transparent and flexible supercapacitors with single walled carbon nanotube thin film electrodes. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 6:15434–15439. https://doi.org/10.1021/am504021u
Zhang CJ, Higgins TM, Park S-H et al (2016) Highly flexible and transparent solid-state supercapacitors based on RuO2/PEDOT:PSS conductive ultrathin films. Nano Energy 28:495–505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2016.08.052
Zhang J, Jiang J, Li H, Zhao XS (2011) A high-performance asymmetric supercapacitor fabricated with graphene-based electrodes. Energy Environ Sci 4:4009–4015. https://doi.org/10.1039/C1EE01354H
Zhang N, Zhou W, Zhang Q, Luan P, Cai L, Yang F, Zhang X, Fan Q, Zhou W, Xiao Z, Gu X, Chen H, Li K, Xiao S, Wang Y, Liu H, Xie S (2015) Biaxially stretchable supercapacitors based on the buckled hybrid fiber electrode array. Nanoscale 7:12492–12497. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5NR03027G
Zhong C, Deng Y, Hu W, Qiao J, Zhang L, Zhang J (2015) A review of electrolyte materials and compositions for electrochemical supercapacitors. Chem Soc Rev 44:7484–7539. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5CS00303B
Zhou L, Xiang H-Y, Shen S, Li YQ, Chen JD, Xie HJ, Goldthorpe IA, Chen LS, Lee ST, Tang JX (2014) High-performance flexible organic light-emitting diodes using embedded silver network transparent electrodes. ACS Nano 8:12796–12805. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn506034g
Zhou Y, Azumi R (2016) Carbon nanotube based transparent conductive films: progress, challenges, and perspectives. Sci Technol Adv Mater 17:493–516. https://doi.org/10.1080/14686996.2016.1214526
Funding
Dr. Ashwani Kumar acknowledges the CSIR-SRA funding 13(9131-A)/2020-Pool from CSIR, New Delhi.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kumar, Y., Gupta, A., Thakur, A.K. et al. Advancement and current scenario of engineering and design in transparent supercapacitors: electrodes and electrolyte. J Nanopart Res 23, 119 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-021-05221-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-021-05221-5