Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Mode 2 and the Tension Between Excellence and Utility: The Case of a Policy-Relevant Research Field in Sweden

  • Published:
Minerva Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper investigates the impact of changing science policy doctrines on the development of an academic field, working life research. Working life research is an interdisciplinary field of study in which researchers and stakeholders collaborated to produce relevant knowledge. The development of the field, we argue, was both facilitated and justified by the, at the time dominant, science policy orthodoxy in Sweden, sector research. Sector research science policy doctrine favoured stakeholder-driven research agendas in the fields relevant to the sector. This approach to agenda setting was highly contested by Swedish universities and left scientists vulnerable to the fallout from any conflicts arising among the stakeholder groupings that were part of the governance arrangement. Our case shows that working life research was in part a victim of the struggle between science and policy over who sets the agenda for science in Sweden. In this struggle, each side chose to use ‘scientific quality’ as a proxy for furth ing its respective interests and visions for how science should be governed. The paper argues that this case is of interest to the continued elaboration of the Mode 2 thesis and the debate about ‘relevant science’. We find that the close association with stakeholders and the concomitant dependence it created left working life research unable to defend itself against its critics and that this state of affairs was particularly problematic for social science research on working life.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. The national focus of the case study meant that it was unavoidable to include sources in Swedish. We have, however, used English sources wherever available.

  2. Research bills have been presented since the 1970s and contain the Swedish Government’s priorities and budget for the next four-year-period. The twelfth research bill, “Research and Innovation” (Forskning och Innovation 2012/13:30), was presented in October 2012.

  3. Statens offentliga utredningar (SOU), “Swedish Government Official Reports”, is the official series of reports of committees appointed by the Swedish Government for the analysis of issues in anticipation of a proposed legislation.

  4. Until 2013 Forte www.forte.se was called Swedish Council for Working Life and Social Research (FAS).

  5. Representatives of the social partners had 6 out of 9 seats between 1972 and 1974, 8 out of 10 between 1975 and 1983, 8 out of 14 between 1984 and 1985 and 12 out of 15 between 1986 and 1995.

  6. This quote from a government instruction was translated by the authors, as were all other such citations that follow.

  7. AFA Insurance is a limited company owned by a consortium of private and public sector entities (mainly trade unions and organisations that represent employers). AFA’s main business is in collective agreement based insurance policies, i.e. it insures employees on behalf of the employer.

References

  • Agar, Jon. 2011. “Thatcher, Scientist”, Notes and Records of the Royal Society, London: The Royal Society. doi:10.1098/rsnr.2010.0096 Published 25 May 2011. http://rsnr.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2011/05/13/rsnr.2010.0096.full. Accessed 18 May 2015.

  • Albert, Mathieu. 2003. Universities and the market economy: The differential impact on knowledge production in sociology and economics. Higher Education 45: 147–182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Albin, Maria, Gunn Johansson, Bengt Järvholm, and Eskil Wadensjö. 2009. Att säkra arbetslivsforskning av hög relevans och kvalitet (To secure working life research of high relevance and quality). Arbetsmarknad & Arbetsliv, årg 15, nr 2. Karlstad: Karlstads University.

  • Baccaro, L., and V. Mele. 2012. Pathology of Path Dependency? The ILO and the Challenge of New Governance. Industrial and Labor Relations Review 65: 195–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bernal, John Desmond. 1939. The Social Function of Science. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chalmers, Iain, Michael B. Bracken, Ben Djulbegovic, et al. 2014. How to increase value and reduce waste when research priorities are set. Lancet 383: 156–165.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crompton, Helen. 2007. Mode 2 knowledge production: Evidence from orphan drug networks. Science and Public Policy 34: 199–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dagens Nyheter. 2006. Debatt av Peter Wolodarski: När dålig forskning blir “världsledande”. Debate piece authored by Peter Wolodarski ‘When bad research becomes world class’ published in Dagens Nyheter 3rd November.

  • Edqvist, Olle. 2003. Layered Science and Science Policies. Minerva 41: 207–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eklund, Magnus. 2007. Adoption of the Innovation System Concept in Sweden. Uppsala: Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elzinga, Aant. 1980. Science policy in Sweden: sectorization and adjustment to crisis. Research Policy 9: 116–146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elzinga, Aant. 1985. Research bureaucracy and the drift of epistemic criteria. In The University Research System, eds. Björn Wittrock, and Aant Elzinga, 99–119. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell International.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elzinga, Aant, and Andrew Jamison. 1995. Changing Policy Agendas in Science and Technology. In Handbook of science and technology studies, eds. Sheila Jasanoff, Gerald E. Merkle, James C. Petersen, and Trevor Pinch, 572–597. London: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • European Science Foundation (ESF). 2013. Science Foresight to Advance European Research: A Report by the ESF Member Organization Forum on Science Foresight for Joint Strategy Development. Strasbourg: ESF.

    Google Scholar 

  • FAS. 2009. Svensk arbetslivsforskning – en resurs för välfärd, hälsa och tillväxt. Att säkra forskning av hög relevans och kvalitet. (Swedish Working life research – a resource for welfare, health and growth. Securing research of good quality and high relevance). Stockholm: FAS.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forsberg, Pia. 2000. Nya former för ett institutionaliserat samarbete mellan stat, arbete och capital (New forms of institutionalised collaboration between the state, work and capital). In Politiskt inflytande (Political influence), eds. Anders Neergaard, and Ylva Stubbergaard, 100–125. Lund: Studentlitteratur.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibbons, Michael, Camille Limoges, Helga Nowotny, Simon Schwartzman, Peter Scott, and Martin Trow. 1994. The New Production of Knowledge: The Dynamics of Science and Research in Contemporary Societies. London: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giertz, Eric. 2008. Arbetsstudier – en grundbult i den svenska modellen (Working life studies – a foundation stone in the Swedish model). In Då förändrades Sverige. 25 experter beskriver drivkrafter bakom utvecklingen. (How Sweden changed: 25 experts describe the forces that drove Sweden’s development), ed. Eric Giertz. Pozkal, Poland: Studentlitteratur.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giertz, Eric. 1981. Om arbetsstudieutbildningens institutionalisering i Sverige (On the institutionalisation of working life studies education in Sweden). Stockholm: Department for Industrial Economy and Organisation, Royal Institute of Technology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glimell, Hans. 1997. Den produktiva kroppen. En studie om arbetsvetenskap som idé, praktik och politik (The productive body. A study about working life studies as idea, practice and policy). Stockholm/Stehag: Symposion.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gustafsson, Rolf Å., and Anders Kjellberg. 1983. Beteendevetenskaplig arbetsmiljöforskning. Historisk bakgrund och utveckling i Sverige. Rapport 1983:6. (Behavioural science in iwork environment research. Historical background and development in Sweden). Stockholm: Arbetarskyddsfonden.

  • Gustavsen, Björn, Anders Wikman, Marianne Ekman-Philips, and Bernd Hofmaier. 1996. Concept-Driven Change: The Core Element in a National Workplace Development Program. Concepts and Transformation 1(2/3): 193–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hicks, D., and J. Wang. 2013. The New York Times as a Resource for Mode 2. Science, Technology and Human Values 38(6): 851–877.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huzzard, Tony. 2003. The Convergence of the Quality of Working Life and Competitiveness: A Current Swedish Literature Review. Lund: Lund University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hyman, Richard. 2006. An Anglo-European Perspective on Industrial Relations Research. Arbetsmarknad & Arbetsliv 13(3–4): 29–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Håkansta, Carin. 2013. Between Science and Politics: Swedish work environment research in a historical perspective. Arbete och Hälsa (Work and Health) 47(7): 1–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Håkansta, Carin. 2014. Former glory and challenges ahead: The Definition of Working Life Research in Sweden. Nordic Journal of Working Life Studies 4(2): 3–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, Gregory, Sarosh Kuruvilla, and Carola Frege. 2013. Across Boundaries: The Global Challenges Facing Workers and Employment Research. British Journal of Industrial Relations 51(3): 425–439.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacob, Merle, and Luigi Orsenigo. 2007. Leveraging Science for Innovation. Swedish Policy for University-Industry Collaboration 1990-2005. Stockholm: SNS.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johansson, Anders L. 1994. Förslag till samordnad arbetslivspolitik på FoU-området (Suggestion for coordinated working life policy in the area of R&D). Unpublished report for the Ministry of Labour, 20 December 1994.

  • Johansson, Jan. 1999. A survey of Swedish work environmental and occupational research during the twentieth century. Human Factors and Ergonomics 9(4): 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johansson, Jan, and Lena Abrahamsson. 2009. The good work – A Swedish trade union vision in the shadow of lean production. Applied Ergonomics 40: 775–780.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, Bruce. 2007. The Study of Labour, Employment, and Work Life: Central Features and Core Principle. Arbetsmarknad & Arbetsliv 13: 11–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kropp, Kristoffer, and Anders Blok. 2011. Mode-2 social science knowledge production? The case of Danish sociology between institutional crisis and new welfare stabilizations. Science and Public Policy 38: 213–234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lenhard, Johannes, Holger Lücking, and Holger Schwechheimer. 2006. Expert knowledge, Mode-2 and scientific disciplines: two contrasting views. Science and Public Policy 33: 341–350.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lennerlöf, Lennart. 2008. Mitt arbetsliv (My working life). Stockholm: Premiss.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nowotny, Helga, Peter Scott, and Michael Gibbons. 2001. Rethinking Science: Knowledge and the Public in an Age of Uncertainty. Cambridge: Polity Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 1971. Science, Growth and Society. Paris: OECD.

    Google Scholar 

  • OECD. 1991. Distinction Between Pure and Transfer Sciences, DST/STII(91)12. Paris: OECD.

    Google Scholar 

  • OECD. 2003. Governance of Public Research Toward Better Practices Priority Setting: Issues and Recent Trends. Governance of Public Research: Toward Better Practices, 67–84. Paris, France: OECD.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oscarsson, Bo. 1997. 25 år av arbetslivets förnyelse—forskning och utveckling på arbetslivsområdet 1972–1997 (25 years for the renewal of working life—research and development in the area of working life 1972–1997). Stockholm: Rådet för arbetslivsforskning.

    Google Scholar 

  • Öberg, Per-Ola. 1997. Medborgarnas inflytande och särintressenas makt – Korporatism och lobbying i statsförvaltningen, Rapport till forskningspolitiska kommissionen, Politiska institutioner och strategiskt agerande 17. Uppsala: Statsvetenskapliga Institutionen, Uppsala Universitet.

    Google Scholar 

  • Premfors, Rune. 1986. Svensk forskningspolitik (Swedish research policy). Lund: Studentlitteratur.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rolfer, Bengt, Svend Erik Mathiassen, and Eva Vingård. 2012. Forskning i fara? Forskarna själva om dagens arbetsmiljöforskning (Research in danger? Researchers on contemporary Swedish occupational health research). Gävle: Gävle University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rothstein, Bo, and Jonas Bergström. 1999. Korporatismens fall – och den svenska modellens kris. (The fall of corporativism and the crisis of the Swedish model). Stockholm: SNS Förlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandberg, Åke (ed.). 2013. Nordic lights. Work, Management and Welfare in Scandinavia. Stockholm: SNS Förlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schilling, Peter. 2005. Research as source of strategic opportunity? Re-thinking research policy development in the late 20 th century. Umeå: Umeå University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shinn, Terry. 1999. Change or mutation? Reflections on the foundations of contemporary science. Social Science Information 38: 149–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skerfving, Staffan, Christer Hogstedt, and Hans Welinder. 2007. Broad overview of the history of Swedish occupational health research. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health 33: 6–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevrin, Peter. 1978. Den samhällsstyrda forskningen (Science managed by society). Stockholm: Libris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sturesson, Lennart, and Per Tengblad. 2007. Vart tog dom vägen? Uppföljning av forskare och forskning vid nedläggningen av Arbetslivsinstitutet. (Where have they gone? Follow up on researchers and research after the closure of the Institute for Working Life Research.). Stockholm: VINNOVA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sturesson, Lennart. 2008. Arbetslivsforskning i Sverige 2008 – en lägesbild. (Working life research in Sweden in 2008: state of the art). Stockholm: FAS.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swedish Research Council (VR). 2012. Insatser för att stärka Sverige som forskningsnation (Investments for strengthening Sweden’s research). Stockholm, Sweden: Swedish Research Council.

    Google Scholar 

  • The Rothschild Report. 1971. A Framework for Government Research and Development. London: HMSO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thörnquist, Anette. 2005. Arbetarskydd och samhällsförändring i Sverige 1850–2005 (Workers protection and societal change in Sweden 1850–2005). In Svenska folkets hälsa i historiskt perspektiv (The health of the Swedish people in a historical perspective), eds. Jan Sundin, et al., 223–303. Stockholm: Statens folkhälsoinstitut.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Hemert, Patricia, Peter Nijkamp, and Jolanda Verbraak. 2009. Evaluating social science and humanities knowledge production: an exploratory analysis of dynamics in science systems. Innovation: The European Journal of Social Sciences 22: 443–464.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weingart, Peter. 1997. From ‘finalization’ to ‘Mode 2’: old wine in new bottles? Social Science Information 36: 591–613.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Westerholm, Peter. 2007. Closing the Swedish National Institute for Working Life. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 64(12): 787–788.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Government Reports, Directives and Bills

  • Dir. 2007:42 Avveckling av Arbetslivsinstitutet (Government Directive: Dismantling of the National Institute of Working Life).

  • Government of Sweden 2000/01:3 Forskning och förnyelse (Government Bill: Research and renewal) Stockholm: Government of Sweden.

  • Government of Sweden 2004/05:80 Forskning om ett bättre liv (Research about a better life). Stockholm: Government of Sweden.

  • Government of Sweden 2012/13:30. Forskning och innovation (Research and Innovation). Stockholm: Government of Sweden.

  • SOU 1973:55 Beteendevetenskaplig arbetslivsforskning (Government Official Reports, Behavioural working life research). Stockholm: Government of Sweden.

  • SOU 1990:54 Arbetslivsforskning: Inriktning, Organisation, Finansiering. (Government Official Reports, Working Life Research – Direction, Organisation, Funding). Stockholm: Government of Sweden.

  • SOU 1995:121 Parliament, Government and Research. Some Features of Swedish research policy over two decades. Stockholm: Government of Sweden.

  • SOU 1998:128 Forskningspolitik (Research politics). Stockholm: Government of Sweden.

  • SOU 2011:60 Ett nationellt kunskapscentrum för arbetsmiljö – behov och förutsättningar. (Government Official Reports, A National Centre for Knowledge of the Work Environment – Objectives and Activities). Stockholm: Government of Sweden.

  • SFS 1988:732. Förordning med instruktion till Arbetsmiljöverket. Stockholm: Government of Sweden.

  • SFS 1991:1158. Förordning med instruktion för Arbetsmiljöfonden (Ordinance with instruction for the Work Environment Fund). Stockholm: Government of Sweden.

  • SFS 1995:864. Förordning med instruktion för Arbetslivsinstitutet (Ordinance with instruction for the National Institute for Working Life). Stockholm: Government of Sweden.

  • SFS 1998:1583. Förordning med instruktion till Arbetslivsinstitutet. Stockholm: Government of Sweden.

  • SFS 2000:1132. Förordning med instruktion för Verket för innovationssystem (Ordinance with instruction for the Swedish Agency for Innovation Systems). Stockholm: Government of Sweden.

  • SFS 2007:1431. Förordning med instruktion för Forskningsrådet för hälsa, arbetsliv och välfärd (Ordinance with instruction for the Research Council for research on health, working life and welfare).

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Human Work Science, Department of Business Administration, Technology and Social Sciences, Luleå University of Technology, 971 87, Luleå, Sweden

    Carin Håkansta

  2. Department of Business Administration, Lund University, Box 117, 221 00, Lund, Sweden

    Merle Jacob

Authors
  1. Carin Håkansta
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Merle Jacob
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Carin Håkansta.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Håkansta, C., Jacob, M. Mode 2 and the Tension Between Excellence and Utility: The Case of a Policy-Relevant Research Field in Sweden. Minerva 54, 1–20 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11024-015-9288-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11024-015-9288-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation