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Applying the Responsibility to Protect to the ‘Arab Spring’

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Abstract

The doctrine of the responsibility to protect, since its inception in the ICISS report of 2001, has been the subject of considerable discussion. Arguably its most publicised component is the principle that the international community has the responsibility to protect civilian populations against severe suffering where the relevant national authorities are unable or unwilling to do so. Consequently, the main focus of discourse upon the responsibility to protect has centred on its impact upon the approach of the international community to intervention in respect of situations posing considerable humanitarian crises. The events of the Arab Spring, in which full blown conflict in some states gave rise to serious human suffering, provided a real opportunity for the international community to evaluate the role of the responsibility to protect in decision-making over responding to such instances, and potentially to develop it into a practical and meaningfully implementable concept. However, due to political flaws inherent in the doctrine, and its arguably overstated significance, the doctrine at best played a minimal role in guiding the international response to developments in the Arab World. Nonetheless, responses to the Arab Spring do allow certain conclusions to be drawn in respect of the future relevance of the doctrine.

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Notes

  1. SC Res 1973 (2011), para.4.

  2. See further Panara and Wilson (2013).

  3. While Egypt has not degenerated into the kind of humanitarian crisis seen in Libya or Syria, it is included here due to the ‘unfinished’ nature of that country’s ‘revolution’, following the removal from power of President Morsi, subsequent uprisings, and the unsettled nature of the Egyptian civil and political apparatus.

  4. Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect, available at http://responsibilitytoprotect.org/ICISS%20Report.pdf.

  5. UN Doc. A/Res/60/1.

  6. A huge volume of literature has been generated upon the R2P. See, for example, Genser and Cotler (2012), Arbour (2008), Bellamy (2009), McClean (2008), Pattison (2010).

  7. See Axworthy (2012).

  8. See supra n4, paras. 2.16–2.20. See also Gierycz (2010).

  9. See supra n4, para.2.21.

  10. See Wilson (2014, pp. 175–177).

  11. See Report of the Independent Inquiry into the Actions of the United Nations during the (1994) Genocide in Rwanda, UN Doc. S/1999/1257.

  12. See, e.g., UN Security Council resolutions 794 (1992), 836 (1993), and 929 (1994), which all sanctioned military force for essentially humanitarian purposes in Somalia, Bosnia and Rwanda respectively.

  13. See The Independent International Commission on Kosovo (2000).

  14. See further, e.g., Kritsiotis (2000), Simma (1999), Cassese (1999). Nonetheless, there was broad international support for the action, arguably evidenced by the Security Council’s 12-3 defeat of a Russian/Chinese draft resolution condemning the NATO intervention as unlawful. See UN Docs. S/1999/328; S/PV.3989.

  15. Supra n4, paras. 2.14–2.15.

  16. Supra n4, p.VIII.

  17. Supra n4, p.XI.

  18. Supra n4, para.4.19.

  19. Supra n5. See Chhabra (2012).

  20. While the doctrine is not generally regarded as imposing any new legal obligations, some commentators have suggested that it might be regarded as enjoying the status of ‘soft law’ in light of its adoption by the UN General Assembly. See, for example, Welsh and Banda (2010). See, however, Strauss (2009).

  21. Supra n4, para.6.14.

  22. Supra n4, para.6.15.

  23. Supra n4, para.6.21.

  24. See, e.g., Evans (2008, p. 44).

  25. See Deller (2012, pp. 62–84, at pp. 78–79).

  26. See, e.g., ‘Syria: Putin rubbishes chemical attack claims’, The Guardian, 31 August 2013, available at http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/aug/31/syria-un-weapons-inspectors-leave.

  27. See below.

  28. See Teitt (2009, 2011).

  29. On events specifically in Egypt, see the discussion within this volume in Maogoto and Coleman (2014).

  30. On the events which culminated in the collapse of the Mubarak regime and the role of the military therein, see Varol (2012), pp. 291–356, at pp. 292–293, 340–345).

  31. ‘18 days or protest culminate in Mubarak’s ouster’, CNN News Online, 12 February 2011, available at http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/02/11/egypt.protests/ Mubarak was effectively removed by the military, without whose support he could no longer remain in office.

  32. ‘Mohamed Morsi signs Egypt’s new constitution into law’, The Guardian, 26 December 2012.

  33. ‘Egypt: pressure on Morsi rises as military reiterates ultimatum’, The Guardian, 2 July 2013.

  34. See Brown (2013).

  35. ‘Egypt referendum: 98 % back new constitution’, BBC News, 19 January 2014, available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-25796110.

  36. See, e.g., ‘Secretary-General, Alarmed by violence in Egypt, strongly condemns attacks on churches, hospitals, other public facilities as ‘unacceptable’’, 17 August 2013, UN Doc.SG/SM/15221; ‘Condemning Deadly Terror Attack in Egypt, Secretary-General says he is ‘Troubled’ by Deteriorating Human Rights Situation, Political Climate’, 24 December 2013, UN Doc.SG/SM/15558.

  37. See Varol, supra n30, pp. 340–342.

  38. See, e.g., ‘Egypt unrest: Obama increases pressure on Mubarak’, BBC News, 5 February 2011, available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-12371479.

  39. For an account from the ground, see Crawford (2012).

  40. On the course of events in Libya, see Wilson (2013, pp. 101–121, at pp. 104–106).

  41. Time Magazine, 9 May 2011, p. 11.

  42. UN Doc. S-15/1, A/HRC/RES/S-15/1.

  43. UN Doc. A/65/PV.76.

  44. SC Res 1970 (2011), para.1.

  45. Ibid, paras.9–10, 15, 17.

  46. Supra n41, para.4.

  47. SC Res 1973 (2011), para.4.

  48. Ibid, paras.6, 8.

  49. See, e.g., Daalder and Stavridis 2012.

  50. See Helal (2012).

  51. Of course, the Council had sanctioned military action under chapter VII on several previous occasions in support of humanitarian objectives. See Wilson, supra n10, pp. 175–177.

  52. UN Press Release, ‘Secretary-General says Security Council Action on Libya Affirms International Community’s Determination to Protect Civilians from Own Government’s Violence’, 18 March 2011.

  53. See Helal, supra n47, pp. 227–228.

  54. See Wilson, supra n37, pp. 110–113.

  55. UN Doc. S/2012/77. See further below.

  56. Helal, supra n47, p. 230. For a questioning analysis of the legality of NATO actions, see Ulftsein and Christiansen(2013). See also Wilson, supra n37, pp. 116–120.

  57. Helal, supra n47, p. 230.

  58. See Wilson, supra n37, pp. 118–119.

  59. Loiselle (2013, pp. 317–341, at p. 332).

  60. Para.4.

  61. In the Security Council debates surrounding the adoption of the relevant resolutions, only France invoked the responsibility of “the international community to intervene when states fail in their duty” to protect their populations; see UN Doc. S/PV.6491, at p.5.

  62. Powell (2012, pp. 298–316, at p. 304).

  63. See, e.g., Berman and Michaelson (2012), Chesterman (2011), Morris (2013), pp. 1265–1283, at pp. 1271–1274).

  64. Chesterman, ibid, p. 280.

  65. SC Res 1674 (2006), para.4.

  66. See Wilson, supra n37, pp. 113–116. It was, however, only the second reference to the ICC made by the Council, the previous occasion being resolution 1593’s referral of the situation in Darfur.

  67. SC Res 1593 (2005).

  68. In the words of Powell, resolution 1973 “built upon trends related to RtoP, especially trends towards enhancing the… protection of civilians”; Powell, supra n59, p. 301. See also, Thielborger (2012, pp. 11–48, at p. 19).

  69. On their causes, see Phillips (2012, pp. 67–82, at pp. 68–71).

  70. For background, see Robinson (2012).

  71. ‘Syria conflict: chemical weapons blamed as hundreds reported killed’, The Guardian, 22 August 2013, available at http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/aug/21/syria-conflcit-chemical-weapons-hundreds-killed.

  72. See, e.g., UN Doc. S/PV.6524.

  73. ‘Special Advisors of the United Nations Secretary-General on the Prevention of Genocide, Francis Deng, and on the Responsibility to Protect, Edward Luck, on the Situation in Syria (Press Release, 21 July 2011).

  74. UN Doc. A/HRC/S-17/2/Add.1, para.100.

  75. UN Doc. A/HRC/RES/S-18/1.

  76. UN Doc. S/PV.7020, p.4.

  77. See Ban Ki Moon, Remarks at opening of High-level segment of the Geneva Conference on Syria, available at http://www.un.org/apps/news/infocus/sgspeeches/statments_full.asp?statID=2111.

  78. UN Doc. S/2011/612.

  79. Brazil, India, Lebanon, and South Africa.

  80. UN Doc. S/PV.6627, pp. 3–5.

  81. UN Doc. S/2012/77.

  82. UN Doc. S/PV.6711.

  83. UN Doc. SG/SM/14124.

  84. UN Doc. SG/SM/14441.

  85. See, e.g., ‘More than 1,400 killed in Syrian chemical weapons attack, U.S says’, Washington Post, 30 August 2013, available at http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/nearly-1500-killed-in-syrian-chemical-weapons-attack-us-says/2013/08/30/b2864662-1196-11e3-85b6-d27422650fd5_story.html.

  86. See, e.g., ‘Obama assembles fragile alliance blaming Assad for chemical attacks’, The Guardian, 6 September 2013, available at http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/06/obama-alliance-assad-chemical-weapons.

  87. UN Mission to Investigate Allegations of the Use of Chemical Weapons in the Syrian Arab Republic, Report on Allegations of the Use of Chemical Weapons in the Ghouta Area of Damascus on 21 August 2013.

  88. ‘Syria crisis: Cameron loses Commons vote on Syria action’, BBC News, 30 August 2013, available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-23892783.

  89. ‘France’s Hollande backs US on Syria action’, BBC News, 30 August 2013, available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-23897775.

  90. ‘Obama to seek Congress vote on Syria military action’, BBC News, 1 September 2013, available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-23916752.

  91. SC Res 2118 (2013).

  92. On obstacles to intervention, see Phillips, supra n66, pp. 76–79.

  93. Morris, supra n60, pp. 1276–1277.

  94. Carpenter (2013). See also Zifcak (2012, pp. 1–35, at pp. 27–28, 31–32).

  95. See Carpenter, ibid, pp. 3–7; Zifcak (2013), pp. 11–39, at pp. 31–34).

  96. See Charap (2013), Ulftsein and Christiansen, supra n53, pp. 170–171.

  97. See Carpenter, supra n91, p. 9.

  98. Whether this is so is, of course, debatable in light of the discussion above in respect of the Libyan episode.

  99. Zifcak, supra n91, p. 33.

  100. Powell, supra n59, p. 299.

  101. See further Garwood-Gowers (2012).

  102. Indeed, military interventions undertaken to serve humanitarian objectives have often resulted in the overthrow of regimes held responsible for atrocities giving rise to the situation of humanitarian concern. Consider, for example, interventions in Uganda and Cambodia during the 1970 s. See generally Wheeler (2001, chs. 3–4).

  103. See Wilson, supra n37, pp. 116–120.

  104. See the references cited supra in n13.

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    Gary Wilson

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Wilson, G. Applying the Responsibility to Protect to the ‘Arab Spring’. Liverpool Law Rev 35, 157–173 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10991-014-9151-6

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