Abstract
While the emergence and popularity of the responsibility to protect (RtoP) doctrine as a lexicon in international humanitarian system and literature have gained traction within the last decade, humanitarian intervention have however metamorphosed through a checkered history. This chapter examines the emergence and development of the RtoP by interrogating the genealogy and history of the doctrine that is hinged on the notion of a ‘never again’ approach to curtailing mass atrocities in the world. There is no gainsaying the fact that the continent of Africa have had a two-pronged impact on the RtoP. First, Africa was the epicentre of the ideological and operational shift from peacekeeping to RtoP; second, the continent have provided a litmus test for the implementation of the doctrine as evident by the backlash that followed NATO’S overreach in Libya in 2011. A plethora of inter-state and intra-state wars in Africa between the period of the end of the Cold War to the post-911 era have necessitated the deployment of over thirty peacekeeping missions on the continent by the United Nations (UN). However, the failure of UN peacekeeping missions to prevent mass atrocities such as the 1994 Rwandan genocide and the subsequent 1995 Srebrenica massacre birthed an ideological and operational shift from peacekeeping to a responsibility to protect that is geared towards ensuring a concerted global effort at acting to preventing mass atrocities. By using Africa as a prism, this study presents an in-depth analyses of the RtoP doctrine as an international statute by tracing the origin of peacekeeping and the history of its metamorphosis into the R2P doctrine. It further examines the norms of RtoP that breaks with the idea of peacekeeping. Lastly, this chapter interrogates the debates on the subject matter of the RtoP and makes a prognosis on the new directions—responsibility while protecting (RwP)—to which the doctrine may take in light of criticisms that followed its 2011 implementation Libya.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Amneus, D. (2013). Responsibility to Protect and the Prevention of Genocide. A Right to Humanitarian Intervention? (p. 33).
Bellamy, A. J. (2009). Realizing the Responsibility to Protect. International Studies Perspectives, 10(2), 111–128.
Boisson de Chazournes, L., & Condorelli, L. (2006). De la ‘responsabilité de protéger’, ou d’une nouvelleparure pour une notion déjà bien établie. Révue générale de droit international public, 110(1), 11–18. http://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:6162
Brahimi, L. (2000). Report of the Panel on UN Peace Operations, A/44/305-S/2000/809 (pp. 8–9, 21).
Brosig, M. (2012) Responsibility to Protect: The GIBSA Perspective. In M. Brosig (Ed.), The Responsibility to Protect 2 from Evasive to Reluctant Action? The Role of Global Middle Powers, HSF, ISS, KAS & SAIIA, Johannesburg (pp. 1–8).
Evans, G. (2008). The Responsibility to Protect: Ending Mass Atrocity Crimes Once and for All. Brookings Institution Press.
Evans, G. J., & Sahnoun, M. (2001). The responsibility to protect : Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty. International Development Research Centre.
Foley, C. (2013). Normative Developments in the Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflicts.
Fortna, P. (2008). Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents’ Choices after Civil War (Chapter 7). Princeton University Press.
Francioni, F., & Bakker, C. (2013). Responsibility to Protect, Humanitarian Intervention and Human Rights: Lessons from Libya to Mali. The Transatlantic Relationship and the Future Global Governance. Working Paper. ISSN 2281-5252.
Francis, A., Popovski, V., & Sampford, C. (2012). Norms of Protection: Responsibility to Protect, Protection of Civilians and Their Interaction (p. xiii).
Franck, T. M. (2006). Interpretation and Change in the Law of Humanitarian Intervention. In J. L. Holzgrefe & R. O. Keohane (Eds.), Humanitarian Intervention: Ethical, Legal and Political Dilemmas (p. 204 at pp. 220–226). Cambridge University Press.
Frederic, M. (2012). From Peacekeeping to R2P: The Protection of Civilians as the UN's New Raison d'être? Available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2154968
Gierycz, D. (2008). The Responsibility to Protect: A Legal and Rights-Based Perspective. NUPI Report, 5, 8.
Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect. (2018). Peacekeeping, Civilian Protection and the Responsibility to Protect: A Handbook for Trainers.
Hamann, E. P. (2013). Implementing the Responsibility to Protect: New Directions for International Peace and Security? Igarape Institute.
Holt, V., Taylor, G., & Kelly, M. (2009). Protecting Civilians in the Context of UN Peacekeeping Operations: Successes, Setbacks and Remaining Challenges (p. 19).
ICISS Report. (2001). International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty. Published December 2001. Retrieved http://www.iciss-ciise.gc.ca/report2-en.asp
International Crisis Group. (2012). Côte d’Ivoire: Defusing Tensions. www.crisisgroup.org/en/publication-type/media-releases/2012/africa/cote-d-ivoire-defusin-tensions.aspx
Kelly, M. (2013). Fighting for Their Lives: R2P, RwP and the Utility of Force to Protect Civilians. Igarape Institute.
Malan, M. (1998). Peacekeeping in Africa—Trends and Responses. Institute for Security Studies. Occasional Paper No. 31.
Muggah, R. (2013) (eds). Stabilization Operations, Security and Development. Routledge.
Omorogbe, E. Y. (2012). The African Union, Responsibility to Protect and the Libyan Crisis. Netherlands International Law Review, LIX, 141–163, 2012.
Raymond, D. (2013). Responsibility to Protect and the Military. Igarape Institute
Rosenberg, S. (2009). Responsibility to Protect: A Framework for Prevention. Global Responsibility to Protect, 1, 448.
Ryniker, A. (2001). The ICRC’s Position on ‘Humanitarian Intervention.’ International Review of the Red Cross, 482, 527–532.
Sarkin, J. (2009). The Role of the United Nations, the African Union and Africa’s Sub-Regional Organizations in Dealing with Africa’s Human Rights Problems: Connecting Humanitarian Intervention and the Responsibility to Protect. Journal of African Law, 53, 1.
Sarkin, J., & Paterson, M. (2010). Introduction. 2 Global Responsibility to Protect (p. 339 at p. 344).
Security Council Report. (2014). Possible Vote on Syria Draft Humanitarian Resolution. What's in Blue. Available at: http://www.whatsinblue.org/2014/02/possible-vote-onsyria-draft-humanitarian-resolutiontomorrow.php. Accessed 5 Sept 2014.
Sihvo, O. (2012). The Responsibility to Protect and Protection of Civilians: Enhancing the Protection Capacity through Interaction. Master’s Thesis in Public International Law, Master’s Programme in International Human Rights Law.
Simma, B. (1999). NATO, the UN and the Use of Force: Legal Aspects. European Journal of International Law, 10(1), 1–22.
Smith, K. (2015). R2P and the Protection of Civilians: South Africa’s Perspective on Conflict Resolution. Policy Brief 113. Global Public Policy Initiative
Smith, M., Whalan, J., & Thomson, P. (2011). The Protection of Civilians in UN Peacekeeping Operations: Recent Developments. Security Challenges, 7, 30–31.
Stahn, C. (2007). Responsibility to Protect: Political Rhetoric or Emerging Legal Norm? The American Journal of International Law, 101(1), 99 at pp. 111–114.
Stockburger, P. (2010). The Responsibility to Protect Doctrine: Customary International Law, an Emerging Legal Norm, or Just Wishful Thinking? Intercultural Human Rights Law Review, 5, 2.
Stuenkel, O. (2013). Brazil as a Norm Entrepreneur: The Responsibility While Protecting. Igarape Institute.
Tardy, T. (2012). The Dangerous Liaisons of the Responsibility to Protect and the Protection of Civilians in Peacekeeping Operations. Global Responsibility to Protect, 4(4), 424–448.
Thakur, R. (2006). The United Nations. From Collective Security to the Responsibility to Protect. Cambridge University Press.
The Fall of Srebrenica. Report of the UNSG Pursuant to General Assembly Resolution 53/55, 15 November 1999.
UNSC Res. 941, S/RES/941, 23 September 1994.
UNSC Res. 1004, S/1004, 12 July 1995.
Williams, P. D. (2011). The Road to Humanitarian War in Libya. Global Responsibility to Protect, 3, 248.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2024 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Awodi, P.I., Wapmuk, S. (2024). From Peacekeeping to Responsibility to Protect: Unpacking the Genealogy and History of the RtoP Doctrine in the International Humanitarian System. In: Erameh, N.I., Ojakorotu, V. (eds) Africa's Engagement with the Responsibility to Protect in the 21st Century. Africa's Global Engagement: Perspectives from Emerging Countries. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-8163-2_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-8163-2_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-99-8162-5
Online ISBN: 978-981-99-8163-2
eBook Packages: Political Science and International StudiesPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)