Abstract
Certain recently-attested varieties of Germanic V2 languages are known to deviate from the strict V2 requirement characteristic of the standard. This is the case, for example, for Kiezdeutsch, a new German dialect, as well as urban vernacular varieties of Danish, Norwegian and Swedish: descriptively speaking, in these varieties, subject-verb inversion may be absent under certain well-defined conditions. In this article I outline those conditions and the type of syntactic analysis required to account for them, claiming that an articulated left periphery is needed to account for the findings. The similarity of the V3 patterns found in these new varieties, which are geographically isolated from each other but which share a characterization in terms of the demographics of their speaker groups, invites a diachronic account in terms of language contact. I argue that transfer cannot account for V3, but that a scenario of sequential simplification and complexification is able to do so. Finally, turning to Old English, which exhibits similar (though not identical) V2/V3 alternations, I argue that a similar synchronic analysis can be upheld and that its diachronic origins may well also have been similar—a case of using the present to inform our approach to the past.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Abraham, Werner. 1993. Null subjects in the history of German: From IP to CP. Lingua 89: 117–142.
Aelbrecht, Lobke, Liliane Haegeman, and Rachel Nye. 2012. Main clause phenomena and the privilege of the root. In Main clause phenomena: New horizons, ed. Lobke Aelbrecht, Liliane Haegeman, and Rachel Nye, 1–20. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Antomo, Mailin, and Markus Steinbach. 2010. Desintegration und Interpretation: ‘Weil’-V2-Sätze an der Schnittstelle zwischen Syntax, Semantik und Pragmatik. Zeitschrift für Sprachwissenschaft 29: 1–37.
Aoun, Joseph E., Elabbas Benmamoun, and Lina Choueiri. 2010. The syntax of Arabic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Appel, René, and Pieter Muysken. 1987. Language contact and bilingualism. London: Arnold.
Axel, Katrin. 2007. Studies on Old High German syntax: Left sentence periphery, verb placement and verb-second. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Baker, Mark C. 1988. Incorporation: A theory of grammatical function changing. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Bech, Kristin. 1998. Pragmatic factors in language change: XVS and XSV clauses in Old and Middle English. Folia Linguistica Historica 19: 79–102.
Bech, Kristin. 2001. Word order patterns in Old and Middle English: A syntactic and pragmatic study. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Bergen.
Benincà, Paola, and Cecilia Poletto. 2004. Topic, focus, and V2: Defining the CP sublayers. In The cartography of syntactic structures: The structure of CP and IP, vol. 2, ed. Luigi Rizzi, 52–75. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Biberauer, Theresa, Anders Holmberg, and Ian Roberts. 2014. A syntactic universal and its consequences. Linguistic Inquiry 45: 169–225.
Biberauer, Theresa, and Ian Roberts. 2015. The clausal hierarchy, features, and parameters. In The cartography of syntactic structures: Beyond functional sequence, vol. 10, ed. Ur Shlonsky, 295–313. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bobaljik, Jonathan, and Höskuldur Thráinsson. 1998. Two heads aren’t always better than one. Syntax 1: 37–71.
Bolander, Maria. 1988a. Is there any order? On word order in Swedish learner language. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 9: 97–113.
Bolander, Maria. 1988b. Nu ja hoppas inte så mycke: Om inversion och placering av negation och adverb i svenska som andraspråk. In Första symposiet om svenska som andraspråk: Föredrag om språk, språkinlärning och interaktion, vol. 1, ed. Kenneth Hyltenstam and Inger Lindberg, 203–214. Stockholm: Stockholm University Centre for Research on Bilingualism.
Branigan, Phil. 2005. The phase-theoretic basis for subject-verb inversion. Ms., Memorial University.
Breul, Carsten. 2004. Focus structure in generative grammar: An integrated syntactic, semantic and intonational approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Canale, W. Michael. 1978. Word order change in Old English: Base reanalysis in generative grammar. Ph.D. dissertation, McGill University.
Chafe, Wallace. 1976. Givenness, contrastiveness, definiteness, subjects, topics, and point of view. In Subject and topic, ed. Charles N. Li, 27–55. New York: Academic Press.
Chomsky, Noam. 1995. The Minimalist program. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Chomsky, Noam. 2000. Minimalist inquiries: The framework. In Step by step: Essays on Minimalist syntax in honor of Howard Lasnik, ed. Roger Martin, David Michaels, and Juan Uriagereka, 89–156. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Chomsky, Noam. 2005. Three factors in language design. Linguistic Inquiry 36: 1–22.
Clahsen, Harald. 1984. The acquisition of German word order: A test case for cognitive approaches to L2 development. In Second languages: A cross-linguistic perspective, ed. Roger Andersen, 219–242. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Clahsen, Harald, and Pieter Muysken. 1986. The availability of universal grammar to adult and child learners: A study of the acquisition of German word order. Second Language Research 2: 93–119.
Cognola, Federica. 2013. Syntactic variation and verb second: A German dialect in Northern Italy. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Cormany, Ed. 2015. Changes in Friulano subject clitics: Conflationand interactions with the left periphery. In Syntax over time: Lexical, morphological, and information–structural interactions, ed. Theresa Biberauer and George Walkden, 249–264. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Crain, Stephen, Takuya Goro, and Rosalind Thornton. 2006. Language acquisition is language change. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 35: 31–49.
de Cuba, Carlos. 2006. Embedded verb-second in Swedish, \(c\)P and intensionality. In Stony Brook occasional papers in linguistics: Intensionality and sentential complementation, vol. 1, ed. Tomoko Kawamura, Yunju Suh, and Richard K. Larson, 2–21. New York: Stony Brook University.
de Haan, Germen J., and Fred Weerman. 1986. Finiteness and verb fronting in Frisian. In Verb second phenomena in Germanic languages, ed. Hubert Haider and Martin Prinzhorn, 77–110. Dordrecht: Foris.
den Besten, Hans. 1977. On the interaction of root transformations and lexical deletive verbs. Ms, University of Amsterdam.
Erguvanlı, Eser Emine. 1984. The function of word order in Turkish grammar. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Evers, Arnold. 1981. Verb-second movement rules. Wiener Linguistische Gazette 26: 15–34.
Eyþórsson, Þórhallur. 1995. Verbal syntax in the early Germanic languages. Ph.D. dissertation, Cornell University.
Fanselow, Gisbert. 2003. Münchhausen-style head movement and the analysis of verb-second. In Syntax at sunset: Head movement and syntactic theory ed. Anoop Mahajan, 40–76. UCLA Working Papers in Linguistics.
Fanselow, Gisbert. 2004. Cyclic phonology-syntax-interaction: Movement to first position in German. In Interdisciplinary studies on information structure, vol. 1, ed. Shinichiro Ishihara, Michaela Schmitz, and Anne Schwarz, 1–42. Potsdam: Universitätsverlag Potsdam.
Frascarelli, Mara, and Roland Hinterhölzl. 2007. Types of topics in German and Italian. In On information structure, meaning and form: Generalizations across languages, ed. Kerstin Schwabe and Susanne Winkler, 87–116. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Fraurud, Kari, and Ellen Bijvoet. 2004. Multietniskt ungdomsspråk och andra varieteter av svenska i flerspråkiga miljöer. In Svenska som andraspråk: i forskning, undervisning och samhälle, ed. Kenneth Hyltenstam and Inger Lindberg, 400–401. Lund: Studentlitteratur.
Freeman, Edward A. 1871. Old English history for children, 2nd ed. London: J. M. Dent & Sons.
Frey, Werner. 2004. The grammar-pragmatics interface and the German prefield. Sprache und Pragmatik 52: 1–39.
Freywald, Ulrike, Katharina Mayr, Tiner Özçelik, and Heike Wiese. 2011. Kiezdeutsch as a multiethnolect. In Ethnic styles of speaking in European metropolitan areas, ed. Friederike Kern and Margret Selting, 45–73. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Freywald, Ulrike, Leonie Cornips, Natalia Ganuza, Ingvild Nistov, and Toril Opsahl. 2015. Beyond verb second—A matter of novel information-structural effects? Evidence from German, Swedish, Norwegian and Dutch. In Language, youth and identity in the 21st century: Linguistic practices across urban spaces, ed. Jacomine Nortier, and Bente A. Svendsen, 73–92. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fukui, Naoki. 1993. Parameters and optionality. Linguistic Inquiry 24: 399–420.
Ganuza, Natalia. 2008. Syntactic variation in the Swedish of adolescents in multilingual urban settings: Subject-verb order in declaratives, questions and subordinate clauses. Ph.D. dissertation, Stockholm University.
Ganuza, Natalia. 2010. Subject-verb order variation in the Swedish of young people in multilingual urban areas. In Multilingual urban Scandinavia: New linguistic practices, ed. Pia Quist and Bente A. Svendsen, 31–48. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Giorgi, Alessandra, and Fabio Pianesi. 1997. Tense and aspect: From semantics to morphosyntax. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Green, Thomas. 2011. A re-evaluation of the evidence of Anglian-British interaction in the Lincoln region. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Oxford.
Grewendorf, Günther. 1988. Aspekte der deutschen Syntax: Eine Rektions-Bindungs-Analyse. Tübingen: Gunter Narr.
Haeberli, Eric. 2002. Inflectional morphology and the loss of V2 in English. In Syntactic effects of morphological change, ed. David Lightfoot, 88–106. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Haegeman, Liliane. 1995. The syntax of negation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Haegeman, Liliane. 2003. Conditional clauses: External and internal syntax. Mind and Language 18: 317–339.
Haegeman, Liliane. 2006. Conditionals, factives and the left periphery. Lingua 116: 1651–1669.
Haider, Hubert. 1993. Deutsche syntax generativ. Tübingen: Gunter Narr.
Haider, Hubert. 2010. The syntax of German. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Håkansson, Gisela, Manfred Pienemann, and Susan Sayehli. 2002. Transfer and typological proximity in the context of second language processing. Second Language Research 18: 250–273.
Hansen, Gert Foget, and Nicolai Pharao. 2005. Prosodiske træk i et-og tosprogede unges københavnsk. Danske talesprog 5: 1–50.
Heycock, Caroline. 2006. Embedded root phenomena. In The Blackwell companion to syntax, ed. Martin Everaert and Henk van Riemsdijk, 174–209. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Hinterhölzl, Roland, and Svetlana Petrova. 2009. From V1 to V2 in West Germanic. Lingua 120: 315–328.
Holmberg, Anders. 2015. Verb-second. In Syntax—theory and analysis: An international handbook, vol. 1, ed. Tibor Kiss and Artemis Alexiadou, 342–382. Berlin: de Gruyter.
Hornstein, Norbert. 1995. Logical form: From GB to Minimalism. Oxford: Blackwell.
Hsu, Brian. 2016. Unification of Feature Scattering and M-Merger as Coalescence. Ms, USC.
Hyltenstam, Kenneth. 1978. Variability in interlanguage syntax. Working Papers 18. Lund: Lund University.
Iatridou, Sabine, and Anthony Kroch. 1992. The licensing of CP-recursion and its relevance to the Germanic verb-second phenomenon. In Working Papers in Scandinavian Syntax, vol. 50, 1–25.
Ko, Heejeong. 2005. Syntax of why-in-situ: Merge into [SPEC, CP] in the overt syntax. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 23: 867–916.
Koopman, Willem. 1995. Verb-final main clauses in Old English prose. Studia Neophilologica 67: 129–144.
Koopman, Willem. 1996. Evidence for clitic adverbs in Old English: An evaluation. In English Historical Linguistics 1994, ed. Derek Britton, 223–245. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Kotsinas, Ulla-Britt. 1988. Rinkebysvenskan—En dialekt? Svenskans beskrivning 16: 264–278.
Kotsinas, Ulla-Britt. 1992. Immigrant adolescents’ Swedish in multicultural areas. In Ethnicity in youth culture, ed. Cecilia Palmgren, Karin Lövgren, and Goran Bolin, 43–62. Stockholm: Stockholms Universitet.
Kotsinas, Ulla-Britt. 1994. Ungdomsspråk. Uppsala: Hallgren och Fallgren.
Kotsinas, Ulla-Britt. 1998. Language contact in Rinkeby, an immigrant suburb. In Jugendsprache—langue des jeunes—youth language. Linguistische und soziolinguistische Perspektiven, ed. Jannis K. Androutsopoulos and Arno Scholz, 125–148. Frankfurt: Lang.
Krifka, Manfred. 2008. Basic notions of information structure. Acta Linguistica Hungarica 55: 243–276.
Kroch, Anthony, and Ann Taylor. 1997. Verb movement in Old and Middle English: Dialect variation and language contact. In Parameters of morphosyntactic change, ed. Ans van Kemenade and Nigel Vincent, 297–325. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Laker, Stephen. 2008. Changing views about Anglo-Saxons and Britons. In Six papers from the 28th Symposium on Medieval Studies held at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam on 15 December 2006, ed. Henk Aertsen and Bart Veldhoen, 1–38. Leiden: Leiden University Department of English.
Light, Caitlin. 2013. The syntax and pragmatics of fronting in Germanic. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Pennsylvania.
Light, Caitlin. 2015. Expletive there in West Germanic. In Syntax over time: Lexical, morphological, and information-structural interactions, ed. Theresa Biberauer and George Walkden, 17–35. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
López, Luis. 2009. A derivational syntax for information structure. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lucas, Christopher. 2009. The development of negation in Arabic and Afro-Asiatic. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Cambridge.
Lucas, Christopher. 2012. Contact-induced grammatical change: Towards an explicit account. Diachronica 29: 275–300.
Lutz, Angelika. 2009. Celtic influence on Old English and West Germanic. English Language and Linguistics 13: 227–249.
McCloskey, James. 2006. Questions and questioning in a local English. In Crosslinguistic research in syntax and semantics: Negation, tense, and clausal architecture, ed. Raffaella Zanuttini, Héctor Campos, Elena Herburger, and Paul H. Portner, 87–126. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
McWhorter, John. 2009. What else happened to English? A brief for the Celtic hypothesis. English Language and Linguistics 13: 163–191.
Mohr, Sabine. 2009. V2 as a single-edge phenomenon. In Selected papers from the 2006 Cyprus Syntaxfest, ed. Kleanthes K. Grohmann and Phoevos Panagiotidis, 141–158. Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Müller, Natascha. 1993. Komplexe Sätze: der Erwerb von COMP und von Wortstellungsmustern bei bilingualen Kindern (Französisch/Deutsch). Tübingen: Narr.
Nistov, Ingvild, and Toril Opsahl. 2014. The social side of syntax in multilingual Oslo. In The sociolinguistics of grammar, ed. Brit Mæhlum and Tor Åfarli, 91–116. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Opsahl, Toril, and Ingvild Nistov. 2010. On some structural aspects of Norwegian spoken among adolescents in multilingual settings in Oslo. In Multilingual urban Scandinavia: New linguistic practices, ed. Pia Quist and Bente A. Svendsen, 49–63. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Parodi, Teresa, Bonnie D. Schwartz, and Harald Clahsen. 2004. On the L2 acquisition of the morphosyntax of German nominals. Linguistics 42: 669–705.
Pesetsky, David. 1987. Wh-in-situ: Movement and unselective binding. In The representation of (in)definiteness, ed. Eric Reuland and Alice ter Meulen, 98–129. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Pintzuk, Susan. 1999. Phrase structures in competition: Variation and change in Old English word order. New York: Garland.
Pintzuk, Susan, and Eric Haeberli. 2008. Structural variation in Old English root clauses. Language Variation and Change 20: 367–407.
Quist, Pia. 2000. Ny københavnsk “multietnolekt.” Om sprogbrug blandt unge i sprogligt og kulturelt heterogene miljøer. Danske Talesprog 1: 143–212.
Quist, Pia. 2005. Stilistiske praksisser i storbyens heterogene skole. En etnografisk og sociolingvistisk undersøgelse af sproglig variation. Ph.D. dissertation, Københavns Universitet.
Quist, Pia. 2008. Sociolinguistic approaches to multiethnolect: Language variety and stylistic practice. International Journal of Bilingualism 12: 43–61.
Quist, Pia. 2012. Stilistisk praksis: unge og sprog i den senmoderne storby. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanums Forlag.
Radford, Andrew. 2013. The complementiser system in spoken English: Evidence from broadcast media. In Information structure and agreement, ed. Victoria Camacho-Taboada, Ángel L. Jiménez-Fernández, Javier Martín-González, and Mariano Reyes-Tejedor, 11–54. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Rampton, Ben. 2010. From ‘multi-ethnic urban heteroglossia’ to ‘contemporary urban vernaculars’. In Working papers in Urban language and literacies, vol. 61. London: King’s College.
Rampton, Ben. 2015. Contemporary urban vernaculars. In Language, youth and identity in the 21st century: Linguistic practices across urban spaces, ed. Jacomine Nortier and Bente A. Svendsen, 24–44. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rehbein, Ines, Sören Schalowski, and Heike Wiese. 2014. The KiezDeutsch Korpus (KiDKo) Release 1.0. In Proceedings of the 9th international conference on language resources and evaluation (LREC), ed. Nicoletta Calzolari, Khalid Choukri, Thierry Declerck, Hrafn Loftsson, Bente Maegaard, Joseph Mariani, Asuncion Moreno, Jan Odijk, and Stelios Piperidis, 3927–3934. Reykjavík: ELRA.
Reis, Marga. 2013. ”Weil-V2“-Sätze und (k)ein Ende? Anmerkungen zur Analyse von Antomo & Steinbach (2010). Zeitschrift für Sprachwissenschaft 32: 221–262.
Rizzi, Luigi. 1990. Relativized minimality. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Rizzi, Luigi. 1996. Residual verb-second and the Wh-Criterion. In Parameters and functional heads: Essays in comparative syntax, ed. Adriana Belletti and Luigi Rizzi, 63–90. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rizzi, Luigi. 1997. The fine structure of the left periphery. In Elements of grammar, ed. Liliane Haegeman, 281–337. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Rizzi, Luigi. 2001. Relativized Minimality effects. In The handbook of contemporary syntactic theory, ed. Mark Baltin, and Chris Collins, 89–110. Oxford: Blackwell.
Roberts, Ian. 1996. Remarks on the Old English C-system and the diachrony of V2. In Language change and generative grammar, ed. Ellen Brandner and Gisella Ferraresi, 154–164. Linguistische Berichte, Sonderheft 7. Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag.
Roberts, Ian. 2004. The C-system in Brythonic Celtic languages, V2, and the EPP. In The cartography of syntactic structures: The structure of CP and IP, vol. 2, ed. Luigi Rizzi, 297–328. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Roberts, Ian. 2007. Diachronic syntax. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ross, J.R. 1972. Doubl-ing. Linguistic Inquiry 3: 61–86.
Schalowski, Sören. 2015. Wortstellungsvariation aus informationsstruktureller Perspektive: eine Untersuchung der linken Satzperipherie im gesprochenen Deutsch. Interdisciplinary Studies on Information Structure 18. Potsdam: Universitätsverlag Potsdam.
Schalowski, Sören. To appear. From adverbial to discourse connective: Multiple prefields in spoken German and the use of dann ‘then’ and danach ‘afterwards’. In Connectives as a functional category: Between clauses and discourse units, ed. Miriam Fried and Eva Lehečková. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Schwartz, Bonnie D., and Sten Vikner. 1996. The verb always leaves IP in V2 clauses. In Parameters and functional heads, ed. Adriana Belletti, and Luigi Rizzi, 11–63. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Shlonsky, Ur, and Gabriela Soare. 2011. Where’s “Why”? Linguistic Inquiry 42: 651–669.
Speyer, Augustin. 2010. Topicalization and stress clash avoidance in the history of English. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Stepanov, Arthur, and Wei-Tien Dylan Tsai. 2008. Cartography and licensing of wh-adjuncts: A crosslinguistic perspective. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 26: 589–638.
Sundquist, John D. 2005. The Mapping Problem and missing surface inflection in Turkish-German interlanguage. In Proceedings of the 7th Generative Approaches to Second Language Acquisition Conference (GASLA 2004), ed. Laurent Dekydtspotter, Rex A. Sprouse, and Audrey Liljestrand, 238–250. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.
Svendsen, Bente A. 2010. Linguistic practices in multilingual urban Norway: An overview. In Multilingual urban Scandinavia: New linguistic practices, ed. Pia Quist and Bente A. Svendsen, 12–16. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Taylor, Ann. 2014. Old English syntax. In The development of Old English, ed. Don Ringe and Ann Taylor, 392–509. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Taylor, Ann, Anthony Warner, Susan Pintzuk, and Frank Beths. 2003. York-Toronto-Helsinki parsed corpus of Old English prose.
te Velde, John. To appear. Temporal adverbs in the Kiezdeutsch left periphery: Combining late merge with deaccentuation for V3. Studia Linguistica.
Tomaselli, Alessandra. 1995. Cases of verb third in Old High German. In Clause structure and language change, ed. Adrian Battye and Ian Roberts, 345–369. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Travis, Lisa de Mena. 1984. Parameters and effects of word order variation. Ph.D. dissertation, MIT.
Tristram, Hildegard. 2004. Diglossia in Anglo-Saxon England, or what was spoken Old English like? Studia Anglica Posnaniensia 40: 87–110.
Trudgill, Peter. 2011. Sociolinguistic typology: Social determinants of linguistic complexity. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
van Coetsem, Frans. 1988. Loan phonology and the two transfer types in language contact. Dordrecht: Foris.
van Coetsem, Frans. 2000. A general and unified theory of the transmission process in language contact. Heidelberg: Winter.
van der Auwera, Johan, and Inge Genee. 2002. English do: On the convergence of languages and linguists. English Language and Linguistics 6: 283–307.
van Gelderen, Elly. 2008. Where did Late Merge go? Grammaticalization as feature economy. Studia Linguistica 62: 287–300.
van Kemenade, Ans. 1987. Syntactic case and morphological case in the history of English. Dordrecht: Foris.
van Kemenade, Ans. 1997. V2 and embedded topicalization in Old and Middle English. In Parameters of morphosyntactic change, ed. Ans van Kemenade and Nigel Vincent, 326–352. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
van Kemenade, Ans, and Bettelou Los. 2006. Discourse adverbs and clausal syntax in Old and Middle English. In The handbook of the history of English, ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los, 224–248. Oxford: Blackwell.
van Kemenade, Ans, and Tanja Milićev. 2012. Syntax and discourse in Old and Middle English word order. In Grammatical change: Origins, nature, outcomes, ed. Dianne Jonas, John Whitman, and Andrew Garrett, 239–254. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Vikner, Sten. 1995. Verb movement and expletive subjects in the Germanic languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Vikner, Sten. 2001. Verb movement variation in Germanic and Optimality Theory. Habilitationsschrift, Universität Tübingen.
Walkden, George. 2014. Syntactic reconstruction and Proto-Germanic. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Walkden, George. 2015. Verb-third in early West Germanic: A comparative perspective. In Syntax over time: Lexical, morphological, and information–structural interactions, ed. Theresa Biberauer, and George Walkden, 236–248. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Westergaard, Marit. 2005. Norwegian child language and the history of English: The interaction of syntax and information structure in the development of word order. In Contexts—historical, social, linguistic: Studies in celebration of Toril Swan, ed. Kevin McCafferty, Tove Bull, and Kristin Killie, 293–310. Bern: Peter Lang.
Westergaard, Marit, and Øystein Vangsnes. 2005. Wh-questions, V2, and the left periphery of three Norwegian dialect types. Journal of Comparative Germanic Linguistics 8: 117–158.
Wiese, Heike. 2006. “Ich mach dich Messer”: Grammatische Produktivität in Kiez-Sprache. Linguistische Berichte 207: 245–273.
Wiese, Heike. 2009. Grammatical innovation in multiethnic urban Europe: New linguistic practices among adolescents. Lingua 119: 782–806.
Wiese, Heike. 2012. Kiezdeutsch: ein neuer Dialekt entsteht. München: C. H. Beck.
Wiese, Heike. 2013. From feature pool to pond: The ecology of new urban vernaculars. In Working Papers in Urban Language and Literacies, vol. 104, 1–29.
Wiese, Heike, and Ines Rehbein. 2016. Coherence in new urban dialects: A case study. Lingua 172–173: 45–61.
Willis, David. 1998. Syntactic change in Welsh: A study of the loss of verb-second. Oxford: Clarendon.
Winford, Donald. 2003. An introduction to contact linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell.
Winford, Donald. 2005. Contact-induced changes: Classification and processes. Diachronica 22: 373–427.
Zaimoğlu, Feridun. 1995. Kanak Sprak: 24 Mißtöne vom Rande der Gesellschaft. Berlin: Rotbuch.
Zepter, Alex. 2003. Phrase structure directionality: Having a few choices. Ph.D. dissertation, Rutgers University.
Zwart, C. Jan-Wouter. 1991. Clitics in Dutch: Evidence for the position of INFL. Groninger Arbeiten zur germanistischen Linguistik 33: 71–92.
Zwart, C. Jan-Wouter. 1993. Dutch syntax: A Minimalist approach. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Groningen.
Acknowledgements
This material was presented at the \(16{{\rm{th}}}\) International Diachronic Generative Syntax Conference, Budapest, July 2014, and at the Workshop on Traces of History, Oslo, March 2015, and I am grateful to audiences there for their feedback, especially Hezekiah Akiva Bacovcin, Theresa Biberauer, Federica Cognola, Tolli Eyþórsson, Tony Kroch, Ian Roberts, and Elly van Gelderen. This article has benefited from the comments of three anonymous reviewers for The Journal of Comparative Germanic Linguistics, and of Associate Editor Jim Wood. Special thanks go to Heike Wiese for help with KiDKo and constructive criticisms of an earlier draft. None of these people necessarily agrees with anything I have to say in this article.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
About this article
Cite this article
Walkden, G. Language contact and V3 in Germanic varieties new and old. J Comp German Linguistics 20, 49–81 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10828-017-9084-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10828-017-9084-2