Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Assessment of water quality, trace metal pollution, source apportionment and health risks in the groundwater of Chakwal, Pakistan

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Environmental Geochemistry and Health Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Groundwater quality evaluation is the main concern in the regions like Chakwal where it is major source of water for drinking and irrigation due to low storage capacity of the surface water and lack of proper irrigation system. The aim of the present study was to evaluate various physicochemical parameters (pH, EC, TDS, DO, TA, TH and chlorides) and selected essential/toxic trace metal concentrations (Na, K, Ca, Mg, Sr, Li, Ag, Zn, Fe, Cu, Co, Mn, Cr, Cd, and Pb) in order to explore their distribution, correlation, spatial variations and health risk assessment. Average concentration of some trace metals (Co, Cd and Pb) and physicochemical parameters (EC, TDS, and alkalinity) were found to exceed the national/international standards. Multivariate methods of analysis showed strong associations among Fe–Li–K, Sr–Mg–Ca, Cd–Mn, Cu–Zn, Ag–Co, and Cr–Pb–Na which were significantly contributed by anthropogenic activities. Irrigation water quality index exhibited intermediate suitability of the groundwater for irrigation purpose. Health risk evaluation of the trace metals revealed significant non-carcinogenic risks for Cd, Co and Pb (HQing > 1) especially for children. Similarly, significant carcinogenic risk was found to be associated with Pb and Cr which exceeded the safe limit, suggesting the lifetime carcinogenic risk associated with these metals in the groundwater. The present health risk problems should be considered on top priority and immediate actions should be taken to safeguard the water quality in the study area.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

The datasets analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

References

  • Aalami, A. H., Hoseinzade, M., Hosseini Manesh, P., Jiryai Sharahi, A., & Kargar Aliabadi, E. (2022). Carcinogenic effects of heavy metals by inducing dysregulation of microRNAs: A review. Molecular Biology Reports, 49, 12227–12238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11033-022-07897-x

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Abbas, M., Shen, S. L., Lyu, H. M., Zhou, A., & Rashid, S. (2021). Evaluation of the hydrochemistry of groundwater at Jhelum Basin, Punjab, Pakistan. Environmental Earth Sciences, 80, 300. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-09579-6

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Adimalla, N., Qian, H., & Nandan, M. J. (2020). Groundwater chemistry integrating the pollution index of groundwater and evaluation of potential human health risk: A case study from hard rock terrain of south India. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 206, 111217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.111217

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Afzal, M., Shabir, G., Iqbal, S., Mustafa, T., Khan, Q. M., & Khalid, Z. M. (2014). Assessment of heavy metal contamination in soil and groundwater at leather industrial area of Kasur, Pakistan. Clean–soil Air Water, 42, 1133–1139. https://doi.org/10.1002/clen.201100715

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ahamad, A., Raju, N. J., Madha, S., & Khan, A. H. (2020). Trace elements contamination in groundwater and associated human health risk in the industrial region of southern Sonbhadra, Uttar Pradesh, India. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 42, 3373–3391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00582-7

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmed, J., Wong, L. P., Chua, Y. P., & Channa, N. (2020). Drinking water quality mapping using water quality index and geospatial analysis in primary schools of Pakistan. Water, 12, 3382. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12123382

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmed, M. T., Hasan, M. Y., Monir, M. U., Samad, M. A., Rahman, M. M., Rifat, M. S. I., & Jamil, A. N. (2020). Evaluation of hydrochemical properties and groundwater suitability for irrigation uses in southwestern zones of Jashore, Bangladesh. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 11, 100441. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2020.100441

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alamgir, A., Khan, M. A., Schilling, J., Shaukat, S. S., & Shahab, S. (2016). Assessment of groundwater quality in the coastal area of Sindh province, Pakistan. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 188, 78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-5061-x

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • APHA. (2006). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. American Public Health Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ara, T., Nisa, W. U., Aziz, R., Rafiq, M. T., Gill, R. A., Hayat, M. T., & Afridi, U. (2021). Health risk assessment of hexachlorocyclohexane in soil, water and plants in the agricultural area of Potohar region, Punjab, Pakistan. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 43, 4345. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-021-00910-5

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arshad, S. M., Tariqa, S. M., Shahzada, M., Bakarb, M. Z. A., & Waqasa, M. (2015). Water characterisation of coal mining areas of Chakwal, Punjab, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research Series A: Physical Sciences, 58, 41–46.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arslan, H., AyyildizTuran, N., ErsinTemizel, K., Kuleyin, A., SaitKiremit, M., Güngör, A., & YildizÖzgül, H. (2022). Evaluation of heavy metal contamination and pollution indices through geostatistical methods in groundwater in Bafra Plain, Turkey. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 19, 8385–8396. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-021-03713-4

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Asadi, E., Isazadeh, M., Samadianfard, S., Raml, M. F., Mosavi, A., Nabipour, N., & Chau, K. W. (2020). Groundwater quality assessment for sustainable drinking and irrigation. Sustainability, 12, 177. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12010177

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ashraf, S., Rizvi, N. B., Rasool, A., Mahmud, T., Huang, G. G., & Zulfajri, M. (2020). Evaluation of heavy metal ions in the groundwater samples from selected automobile workshop areas in northern Pakistan. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 11, 100428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2020.100428

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aslam, R. A., Shrestha, S., & Pandey, V. P. (2018). Groundwater vulnerability to climate change: A review of the assessment methodology. Science of the Total Environment, 612, 853–875. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.08.237

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Australia-EPA (2002). Surface Water Sampling Methods and Analysis. Technical Appendices, Department of Water, Australia. (http://www.water.wa.gov.au/Publication Store/ first87152.pdf). Retrieved on 11 Oct 2018.

  • Awomeso, J. A., Ahmad, S. M., & Taiwo, A. M. (2020). Multivariate assessment of groundwater quality in the basement rocks of Osun State, Southwest Nigeria. Environmental Earth Sciences, 79, 108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-020-8858-z

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ayers, R. S., Westcot, D. W. (1994). Water Quality for Agriculture (pp. 1–130). FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 29. Revision. 1. FAO, Rome.

  • Baawain, M. S., & Al-Futaisi, A. M. (2014). Studying groundwater quality affected by Barka dumping site: An integrated approach. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 39, 5943–5957. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-014-1197-1

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bhatti, Z. I., Ishtiaq, M., Khan, S. A., Nawab, J., Ghani, J., Ullah, Z., & Khan, A. (2022). Contamination level, source identification and health risk assessment of potentially toxic elements in drinking water sources of mining and non-mining areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Journal of Water and Health, 20, 1343–1363. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2022.087

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhatti, N., Siyal, A., & Qureshi, A. (2018). Groundwater quality assessment using water quality index: A case study of Nagarparkar, Sindh, Pakistan. Sindh University Research Journal, 50, 227-234 234. https://doi.org/10.26692/sujo/2018.06.0040

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bux, R. K., Haider, S. I., Mallah, A., Solangi, A. R., Moradi, O., & Karimi-Maleh, H. (2022). Spatial analysis and human health risk assessment of elements in ground water of district Hyderabad, Pakistan using ArcGIS and multivariate statistical analysis. Environmental Research, 210, 112915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.112915

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cangemi, M., Madonia, P., Albano, L., Bonfardeci, A., Di Figlia, M. G., Di Martino, R. M. R., & Favara, R. (2019). Heavy metal concentrations in the groundwater of the Barcellona–Milazzo Plain (Italy): Contributions from geogenic and anthropogenic sources. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16, 285. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16020285

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, G., Wang, X., Wang, R., & Liu, G. (2019). Health risk assessment of potentially harmful elements in subsidence water bodies using a Monte Carlo approach: An example from the Huainan coal mining area, China. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 171, 737–745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.12.101

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Collin, M. S., Kumar Venkataraman, S., Vijayakumar, N., Kanimozhi, V., Arbaaz, S. M., Stacey, R. S., & Swamiappan, S. (2022). Bioaccumulation of lead (Pb) and its effects on human: A review. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazadv.2022.100094

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daud, M. K., Nafees, M., Ali, S., Rizwan, M., Bajwa, R. A., Shakoor, M. B., & Zhu, S. J. (2017). Drinking water quality status and contamination in Pakistan. BioMed Research International, 18, 7908183. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/7908183

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dogramaci, S., Skrzypek, G., Dodson, W., & Grierson, P. F. (2012). Stable isotope and hydrochemical evolution of groundwater in the semi-arid Hamersley Basin of subtropical northwest Australia. Journal of Hydrology, 475, 281–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.10.004

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eldaw, E., Huang, T., Mohamed, A. K., & Mahama, Y. (2021). Classification of groundwater suitability for irrigation purposes using a comprehensive approach based on the AHP and GIS techniques in North Kurdufan Province Sudan. Applied Water Science, 11, 126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-021-01443-z

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elumalai, V., Nethononda, V. G., Manivannan, V., Rajmohan, N., Li, P., & Elango, L. (2020). Groundwater quality assessment and application of multivariate statistical analysis in Luvuvhu catchment, Limpopo, South Africa. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 171, 103967. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2020.103967

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Espinar, J. A. L., & Olmo, M. C. (2020). Impacts of anthropogenic activities on groundwater quality in a detritic aquifer in SE Spain. Exposure and Health, 12, 681–698. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-019-00327-7

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • EU. (1998). Council directive 98/83/EC on the quality of water intended for human consumption. Official Journal of the European Communities, 30, 32–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fida, M., Li, P., Wang, Y., Alam, S. M., & Nsabimana, A. (2022). Water contamination and human health risks in Pakistan: A review. Exposure and Health. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-022-00512-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ge, X., Khan, Z. I., Chen, F., Akhtar, M., Ahmad, K., Ejaz, A., & Elshikh, M. S. (2022). A study on the contamination assessment, health risk and mobility of two heavy metals in the soil–plants–ruminants system of a typical agricultural region in the semi arid environment. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29, 14584–14594. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16756-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Genchi, G., & Carocci, A. (2020). The effects of toxicity. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17, 1–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ghani, J., Ullah, Z., Nawab, J., Iqbal, J., Waqas, M., & Ali, S. M. (2022). Hydrogeochemical characterization, and suitability assessment of drinking groundwater: Application of geostatistical approach and geographic information system. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10, 874464. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.874464

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gu, X., Xiao, Y., Yin, S., Pan, X., Niu, Y., Shao, J., et al. (2017). Natural and anthropogenic factors affecting the shallow groundwater quality in a typical irrigation area with reclaimed water, North China Plain. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 189, 514. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-6229-3

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Halecki, W., Stachura, T., Fudała, W., & Rusnak, M. (2019). Evaluating the applicability of MESS (matrix exponential spatial specification) model to assess water quality using GIS technique in agricultural mountain catchment (Western Carpathian). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 191, 26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-018-7137-x

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • He, X., & Li, P. (2020). Surface water pollution in the middle Chinese Loess Plateau with special focus on hexavalent chromium (Cr6+): Occurrence, sources and health risks. Exposure and Health, 12, 385–401. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-020-00344-x

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hou, D., O’Connor, D., Nathanail, P., Tian, L., & Ma, Y. (2017). Integrated GIS and multivariate statistical analysis for regional scale assessment of heavy metal soil contamination: A critical review. Environmental Pollution, 231, 1188–1200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.07.021

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hussain, F., Wu, R. S., Nabi, G., Hussain, B., (2017). A study on rainfall, runoff and sediment yield relations in small watersheds of Pothwar Region Pakistan. In Proceedings of the 2017 Conference on Sustainable Development for Environmental Resources. Zhongli, Taiwan. http://www.tasder.org.tw/

  • Iqbal, J., Su, C., Rashid, A., Yang, N., Baloch, M. Y. J., Talpur, S. A., & Sajjad, M. M. (2021). Hydrogeochemical assessment of groundwater and suitability analysis for domestic and agricultural utility in Southern Punjab, Pakistan. Water, 13, 3589. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13243589

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Islam, M., Razzaq, A., Zubair, M., Hassan, S., Ahmad, S., Gul, S., & Louhaichi, M. (2022). Impact of rangeland enclosure and seasonal grazing on protected and unprotected rangelands in Chakwal region, Pakistan. Journal of Mountain Science, 19, 46–57. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-021-6761-z

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jahanshahi, R., & Zare, M. (2015). Assessment of heavy metals pollution in groundwater of Golgohar iron ore mine area Iran. Environmental Earth Sciences, 74, 505–520. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-015-4057-8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ji, Y., Wu, J., Wang, Y., Elumalai, V., & Subramani, T. (2020). Seasonal variation of drinking water quality and human health risk assessment in Hancheng City of Guanzhong Plain, China. Exposure and Health, 12, 469–485. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-020-00357-6

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jie, R., Xiao-wen, L., & Ying-xin, W. (2021). Characteristics and evaluations of heavy metal contents in irrigation water sources in the early busy season of farming over a suburb farmland in the lower reaches of Xijiang River. Water Supply, 21, 2811–2824. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2020.281

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kara, H., Demir Yetis, A., & Temel, H. (2021). Assessment of heavy metal contamination in groundwater of Diyarbakir Oil Production Area, (Turkey) using pollution indices and chemometric analysis. Environmental Earth Sciences, 80, 697. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-10011-2

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khalid, S. (2019). An assessment of groundwater quality for irrigation and drinking purposes around brick kilns in three districts of Balochistan province, Pakistan, through water quality index and multivariate statistical approaches. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 197, 14–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2018.11.007

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khalid, S., Shahid, M., Shah, A. H., Saeed, F., Ali, M., Qaisrani, S. A., & Dumat, C. (2020). Heavy metal contamination and exposure risk assessment via drinking groundwater in Vehari, Pakistan. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27, 39852–39864. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10106-6

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khan, F., Krishnaraj, S., Raja, P., Selvaraj, G., & Cheelil, R. (2021). Impact of hydrogeochemical processes and its evolution in controlling groundwater chemistry along the east coast of Tamil Nadu and Puducherry, India. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28, 18567–18588. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10912-y

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khan, Y. K., Toqeer, M., & Shah, M. H. (2021). Spatial distribution, characterization and health risk assessment of selected metals in groundwater of Lahore, Pakistan. Geochemistry, 81, 125692. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemer.2020.125692

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar, S., Toppo, S., Kumar, A., Tewari, G., Beck, A., Bachan, V., & Singh, T. B. N. (2020). Assessment of heavy metal pollution in groundwater of an industrial area: A case study from Ramgarh, Jharkhand, India. International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry. https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2020.1828391

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lanjwani, M. F., Khuhawar, M. Y., & Khuhawar, T. M. J. (2020). Assessment of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation uses in taluka Ratodero, district Larkana, Sindh, Pakistan. International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry, 102, 16. https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2020.1780222

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Latif, R., Ehsan, M., Latif, A., Jan, M., Arsalan, M., Khan, M., & Waheed, A. (2022). Characterization and assessment of irrigation water quality: A GIS based study of District Chakwal, Pakistan. Journal of Applied Research in Plant Sciences, 3, 303–310. https://doi.org/10.38211/joarps.2022.3.2.37

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, P., Wu, J., & Shukla, S. (2022). Achieving the one health goal: Highlighting groundwater quality and public health. Water, 14, 3540. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14213540

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, P., Li, X., Meng, X., Li, M., & Zhang, Y. (2016). Appraising groundwater quality and health risks from contamination in a semiarid region of Northwest China. Exposure and Health, 8, 361–379. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-016-0205-y

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li, P., Tian, R., & Liu, R. (2019). Solute geochemistry and multivariate analysis of water quality in the Guohua Phosphorite Mine, Guizhou Province, China. Exposure and Health, 11, 81–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-018-0277-y

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • LiP, H. S., Yang, N., & Xiang, G. (2018). Groundwater quality assessment for domestic and agricultural purposes in Yan’an City, northwest China: Implications to sustainable groundwater quality management on the Loess Plateau. Environmental Earth Sciences, 77, 775. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7968-3

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, P., Hoth, N., Drebenstedt, C., Sun, Y., & Xu, Z. (2017). Hydro-geochemical paths of multi-layer groundwater system in coal mining regions—Using multivariate statistics and geochemical modeling approaches. Science of the Total Environment, 601, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.146

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mahfooz, Y., Yasar, A., Sohail, M. T., Tabinda, A. B., Rasheed, R., Irshad, S., & Yousaf, B. (2019). Investigating the drinking and surface water quality and associated health risks in a semi-arid multi-industrial metropolis (Faisalabad), Pakistan. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 26, 20853–20865. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-05367-9

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mahmood, S., Danish, M., & Khan, A. A. (2022). First insight into levels, spatial, and gender-specific distribution of potentially toxic elements in black kite, Punjab, Pakistan. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 19, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-020-01486-x

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mal, U., & Adhikari, K. (2021). Groundwater quality and hydrological stress induced by Lower Gondwana open cast coal mine. Journal of Earth System Science, 130, 32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-020-01486-x

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Malassa, H., Hadidoun, M., Al-Khatib, M., Al-Rimawi, F., & Al-Qutob, M. (2014). Assessment of groundwater pollution with heavy metals in North West Bank/Palestine by ICP-MS. Journal of Environmental Protection, 5, 54.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marghade, D., Malpe, D. B., Duraisamy, K., Patil, P. D., & Li, P. (2021). Hydrogeochemical evaluation, suitability, and health risk assessment of groundwater in the watershed of Godavari basin, Maharashtra, Central India. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28, 18471–18494. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10032-7

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mora, A., Mahlknecht, J., Rosales-Lagarde, L., & Hernández-Antonio, A. (2017). Assessment of major ions and trace elements in groundwater supplied to the Monterrey metropolitan area, Nuevo León, Mexico. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 189, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-6096-y

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nawab, J., Khan, S., Xiaoping, W., Rahman, A., Ali, H., Qamar, Z., & Shah, I. A. (2018). Spatial distribution of toxic metals in drinking water sources and their associated health risk in district Buner, Northern Pakistan. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 24, 615–626. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2017.1395684

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nawab, J., Rahman, A., Khan, S., Ghani, J., Ullah, Z., Khan, H., & Waqas, M. (2022). Drinking water quality assessment of government, non-government and self-based schemes in the disaster affected areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Exposure and Health. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-022-00511-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pak-EPA (2008). National Standards for Drinking Water Quality. Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency (Pak EPA). Ministry of Environment, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad.

  • Panaskar, D. B., Wagh, M., Muley, A. A., Mukate, S. V., Pawar, R. S., & Aamalawar, M. L. (2016). Evaluating groundwater suitability for the domestic, irrigation, and industrial purposes in Nanded Tehsil, Maharashtra, India. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 9, 615. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-016-2641-1

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Panghal, V., & Bhateria, R. (2021). A multivariate statistical approach for monitoring of groundwater quality: A case study of Beri block, Haryana, India. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 43, 2615–2629. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00654-8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Panhwar, A., Kandhro, A., Jalbani, N., Faryal, K., Mirjat, M. S., Jhatial, G. H., & Qaiser, S. (2019). Assessment of groundwater quality affected by open dumping site in Hyderabad, Pakistan. International Journal of Environmental Chemistry, 5, 23–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Qaiser, F. U. R., Zhang, F., Pant, R. R., Zeng, C., Khan, N. G., & Wang, G. (2023). Characterization and health risk assessment of arsenic in natural waters of the Indus River Basin Pakistan. Science of The Total Environment, 857, 159408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159408

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Qu, L., Huang, H., Xia, F., Liu, Y., Dahlgren, R. A., Zhang, M., & Mei, K. (2018). Risk analysis of heavy metal concentration in surface waters across the rural–urban interface of the Wen-Rui Tang River, China. Environmental Pollution, 237, 639–649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.02.020

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Qureshi, S. S., Channa, A., Memon, S. A., Khan, Q., Jamali, G. A., Panhwar, A., & Saleh, T. A. (2021). Assessment of physicochemical characteristics in groundwater quality parameters. Environmental Technology and Innovation, 24, 101877. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2021.101877

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Radojevic, M., & Bashkin, V. N. (1999). Practical Environmental Analysis. The Royal Society of Chemistry.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Rahman, S. U., Mehdi, S. A., Jahanzeb, Q., Rafique, M., Tareen, A. D. K., & Iqbal, J. (2018). Gamma rays measurements of naturally occurring radionuclides and resulting dose estimation in soil samples collected from district Chakwal, Pakistan. Journal of Radiation and Nuclear Applications, 3, 23–31. https://doi.org/10.18576/jrna/03010

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rahman, A. U. (2021). Evaluation of groundwater quality for heavy metals by using chemical indices approach in Karachi, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Analytical and Environmental Chemistry, 22, 358–366. https://doi.org/10.21743/pjaec/2021.12.14

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Raja, V., Lakshmi, R. V., Sekar, C. P., Chidambaram, S., & Neelakantan, M. A. (2021). Health risk assessment of heavy metals in groundwater of industrial township Virudhunagar, Tamil Nadu, India. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 80, 144–163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-020-00795-y

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ram, A., Tiwari, S. K., Pandey, H. K., Chaurasia, A. K., Singh, S., & Singh, Y. V. (2021). Groundwater quality assessment using water quality index (WQI) under GIS framework. Applied Water Science, 11, 46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-021-01376-7

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rashid, A., Ayub, M., Javed, A., Khan, S., Gao, X., Li, C., Ullah, Z., Sardar, T., Muhammad, J., & Nazneen, S. (2021). Potentially harmful metals, and health risk evaluation in groundwater of Mardan, Pakistan: Application of geostatistical approach and geographic information system. Geoscience Frontiers, 12, 101128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2020.12.009

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rasool, A., Xiao, T., Farooqi, A., Shafeeque, M., Masood, S., Ali, S., & Nasim, W. (2016). Arsenic and heavy metal contaminations in the tube well water of Punjab, Pakistan and risk assessment: A case study. Ecological Engineering, 95, 90–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2016.06.034

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rehman, K., Bukhari, S. M., Andleeb, S., Mahmood, A., Erinle, K. O., Naeem, M. M., & Imran, Q. (2019). Ecological risk assessment of heavy metals in vegetables irrigated with groundwater and wastewater: The particular case of Sahiwal district in Pakistan. Agricultural Water Management, 226, 105816. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2019.105816

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ren, X., LiP, H. X., Su, F., & Elumalai, V. (2021). Hydrogeochemical processes affecting groundwater chemistry in the central part of the Guanzhong Basin, China. Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 80, 74–91. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-020-00772-5

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saha, N., & Rahman, M. S. (2020). Groundwater hydrogeochemistry and probabilistic health risk assessment through exposure to arsenic-contaminated groundwater of Meghna floodplain, central-east Bangladesh. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 206, 111349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.111349

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sahu, M., Sar, S. K., Baghel, T., & Dewangan, R. (2020). Seasonal and geochemical variation of uranium and major ions in groundwater at Kanker district of Chhattisgarh, central India. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 10, 100330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2020.100330

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sajil, P. J. K., & Kuriachan, L. (2022). Chemometric appraisal of groundwater quality for domestic, irrigation and industrial purposes in Lower Bhavani River basin, Tamil Nadu, India. International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry, 102, 3437–3460. https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2020.1770241

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saleem, M., Iqbal, J., & Shah, M. H. (2016). Assessment of water quality for drinking/irrigation purposes from Mangla Dam Pakistan. Geochemistry, Exploration, Environmental and Analysis, 16, 137–145. https://doi.org/10.1144/geochem2014-336

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saleem, M., Iqbal, J., & Shah, M. H. (2019). Seasonal variations, risk assessment and multivariate analysis of trace metals in the freshwater reservoirs of Pakistan. Chemosphere, 216, 715–724. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.10.173

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Samal, P., Mohanty, A. K., Khaoash, S., & Mishra, P. (2022). Hydrogeochemical evaluation, groundwater quality appraisal, and potential health risk assessment in a coal mining region of Eastern India. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 233, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-022-05811-6

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sarwar, T., Shahid, M., Khalid, S., Shah, A. H., Ahmad, N., Naeem, M. A., & Bakhat, H. F. (2020). Quantification and risk assessment of heavy metal build-up in soil–plant system after irrigation with untreated city wastewater in Vehari, Pakistan. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 42, 4281–4297. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-019-00358-8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Selvakumar, S., Ramkumar, K., Chandrasekar, N., Magesh, N. S., & Kaliraj, S. (2017). Groundwater quality and its suitability for drinking and irrigational use in the Southern Tiruchirappalli district, Tamil Nadu, India. Applied Water Science, 7, 411–420. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-014-0256-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shabbir, R., Ahmad, S. S. (2015). Use of geographic information system and water quality index to assess groundwater quality in Rawalpindi and Islamabad. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 40, 2033–2047. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-015-1697-7

  • Shah, M., Ara, J., Muhammad, S., Khan, S., & Tariq, S. (2012). Health risk assessment via surface water and sub-surface water consumption in the mafic and ultramafic terrain, Mohmand agency, Northern Pakistan. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 118, 60–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2012.04.008

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shakeri, A., Hosseini, H., RastegariMehr, M., & DashtiBarmaki, M. (2022). Groundwater quality evaluation using water quality index (WQI) and human health risk (HHR) assessment in Herat aquifer, west Afghanistan. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 28, 711–733. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2022.2075316

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shakir, S. K., Azizullah, A., Murad, W., Daud, M. K., Nabeela, F., Rahman, H., Rehman, S., & Hader, D. P. (2016). Toxic metal pollution in Pakistan and its possible risks to public health. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 242, 1–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/398_2016_9

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shakoor, M. B., Niazi, N. K., Bibi, I., Rahman, M. M., Naidu, R., Dong, Z., & Arshad, M. (2015). Unraveling health risk and speciation of arsenic from groundwater in rural areas of Punjab, Pakistan. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 12, 12371–12390. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph121012371

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shomar, B. (2015). Geochemistry of soil and groundwater in arid regions: Qatar as a case study. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 1, 33–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2015.12.005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shukla, S., & Saxena, A. (2020). Groundwater quality and associated human health risk assessment in parts of Raebareli district, Uttar Pradesh India. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 10, 100366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2020.100366

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siddiqui, S., Safi, M. W. A., Rehman, N. U., & Tariq, A. (2020). Impact of climate change on land use/land cover of Chakwal District. International Journal of Economic and Environmental Geology, 11, 65–68. https://doi.org/10.46660/ijeeg.Vol11.Iss2.2020.449

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siddiqui, S., Safi, M. W. A., Tariq, A., Rehman, N. U., & Haider, S. W. (2020). GIS based universal soil erosion estimation in district Chakwal Punjab, Pakistan. International Journal of Economic and Environmental Geology, 11, 30–36. https://doi.org/10.46660/ijeeg.Vol11.Iss2.2020.443

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simsek, C., & Gunduz, O. (2007). IWQ index: A GIS-integrated technique to assess irrigation water quality. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 128, 277–300. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-006-9312-8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, U. K., Ramanathan, A. L., & Subramanian, V. (2018). Groundwater chemistry and human health risk assessment in the mining region of East Singhbhum, Jharkhand, India. Chemosphere, 204, 501–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.04.060

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, K. K., Tewari, G., & Kumar, S. (2020). Evaluation of groundwater quality for suitability of irrigation purposes: A case study in the Udham Singh Nagar Uttarakhand. Journal of Chemistry, 2020, 6924026. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/6924026

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tariq, S. R., Shaheen, N., Khalique, A., & Shah, M. H. (2010). Distribution, correlation, and source apportionment of selected metals in tannery effluents, related soils, and groundwater—a case study from Multan, Pakistan. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 166, 303–312. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-009-1003-9

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tong, S., Li, H., Tudi, M., Yuan, X., & Yang, L. (2021). Comparison of characteristics, water quality and health risk assessment of trace elements in surface water and groundwater in China. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 219, 112283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112283

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ullah, Z., Rashid, A., Ghani, J., Nawab, J., & Zeng, X. C. (2022). Groundwater contamination through potentially harmful metals and its implications in groundwater management. Frontiers in Environmental Science. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.1021596

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • USDA. (1954). Diagnosis and Improvement of Saline and Alkali Soils. USDA Handbook, Research Service, United State Government Printing Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA (1989). Risk assessment guidance for superfund. In Human Health Evaluation Manual (Part A) (Vol. 1). United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC. Report EPA/540/1-89/002.

  • USEPA (2009). National Primary Drinking Water Regulations. EPA 816-F-09-004. Office of Water, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC.

  • Wagh, V. M., Panaskar, D. B., Jacobs, J. A., Mukate, S. V., Muley, A. A., & Kadam, A. K. (2019). Influence of hydro-geochemical processes on groundwater quality through geostatistical techniques in Kadava River basin Western India. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 12, 7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-018-4136-8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, L. F., Yang, L. Y., Kong, L. H., Li, S., Zhu, J. R., & Wang, Y. Q. (2014). Spatial distribution, source identification and pollution assessment of metal content in the surface sediments of Nansi Lake, China. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 140, 87–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2014.02.008

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, L., Li, P., Duan, R., & He, X. (2022). Occurrence, controlling factors and health risks of Cr6+ in groundwater in the Guanzhong Basin of China. Exposure and Health, 14, 239–251. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-021-00410-y

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Y., & Li, P. (2022). Appraisal of shallow groundwater quality with human health risk assessment in different seasons in rural areas of the Guanzhong Plain (China). Environmental Research, 207, 112210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.112210

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Z., Xiao, J., Wang, L., Liang, T., Guo, Q., Guan, Y., & Rinklebe, J. (2020). Elucidating the differentiation of soil heavy metals under different land uses with geographically weighted regression and self-organizing map. Environmental Pollution, 260, 114065. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114065

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wei, M., Wu, J., Li, W., Zhang, Q., Su, F., & Wang, Y. (2022). Groundwater geochemistry and its impacts on groundwater arsenic enrichment, variation, and health risks in Yongning County, Yinchuan Plain of northwest China. Exposure and Health, 14, 219–238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-021-00391-y

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2017). Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality: Fourth Edition, Incorporating the First Addendum. World Health Organization, Geneva.

  • Wongsasuluk, P., Chotpantarat, S., Siriwong, W., & Robson, M. (2014). Heavy metal contamination and human health risk assessment in drinking water from shallow groundwater wells in an agricultural area in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 36, 169–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-013-9537-8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, J., & Sun, Z. (2016). Evaluation of shallow groundwater contamination and associated human health risk in an alluvial plain impacted by agricultural and industrial activities, mid-west China. Exposure and Health, 8, 311–329. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-015-0170-x

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, J., Zhou, H., He, S., & Zhang, Y. (2019). Comprehensive understanding of groundwater quality for domestic and agricultural purposes in terms of health risks in a coal mine area of the Ordos basin, north of the Chinese Loess Plateau. Environmental Earth Sciences, 78, 446. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-019-8471

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, J., Li, P., Wang, D., Ren, X., & Wei, M. (2020a). Statistical and multivariate statistical techniques to trace the sources and affecting factors of groundwater pollution in a rapidly growing city on the Chinese Loess Plateau. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 26, 1603–1621. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2019.1594156

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, J., Zhang, Y., & Zhou, H. (2020). Groundwater chemistry and groundwater quality index incorporating health risk weighting in Dingbian County Ordos basin of northwest China. Geochemistry, 80, 125607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemer.2020.125607

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yakovlev, E., Zykova, E., Zykov, S., Druzhinina, A., & Ivanchenko, N. (2022). Evaluation of heavy metal pollution of snow and groundwater on the territory of suburban community garden plots of the Arkhangelsk Agglomeration (Northwest Russia). Pollution, 8, 1448–1473. https://doi.org/10.22059/POLL.2022.342253.1456

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yu, H., Chen, F., Ma, J., Khan, Z. I., Hussain, M. I., Javaid, I., Ahmad, K., Nazar, S., Akhtar, S., Ejaz, A., Sohail, M., Nadeem, M., Hamid, Y., & Rahman, M. H. (2022). Comparative evaluation of groundwater, wastewater and canal water for irrigation on toxic metal accumulation in soil and vegetable: Pollution load and health risk assessment. Agricultural Water Management, 264, 107515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2022.107559

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zacchaeus, O. O., Adeyemi, M. B., Adedeji, A. A., Adegoke, K. A., Anumah, A. O., Taiwo, A. M., & Ganiyu, S. A. (2020). Effects of industrialization on groundwater quality in Shagamu and Ota industrial areas of Ogun state Nigeria. Heliyon, 6, e04353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04353

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zainol, N. F. M., Zainuddin, A. H., Looi, L. J., Aris, A. Z., Isa, N. M., Sefie, A., & Yusof, K. M. K. (2021). Spatial analysis of groundwater hydrochemistry through integrated multivariate analysis: A case study in the urbanized Langat Basin, Malaysia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18, 5733. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18115733

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zakhem, B. A., & Hafez, R. (2015). Heavy metal pollution index for groundwater quality assessment in Damascus Oasis, Syria. Environmental Earth Sciences, 73, 6591–6600. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-014-3882-5

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, Y., Li, P., Chen, M., Dong, Z., & Lu, C. (2021). Groundwater quality for potable and irrigation uses and associated health risk in southern part of Gu’an County, North China Plain. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 43, 813–835. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00553-y

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The research facilities provided by Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan to carry out this project are thankfully acknowledged.

Funding

The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Chemistry, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, 45320, Pakistan

    Maryam Batool & Munir H. Shah

  2. Department of Earth Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, 45320, Pakistan

    Muhammad Toqeer

Authors
  1. Maryam Batool
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Muhammad Toqeer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Munir H. Shah
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

MB methodology, investigation, data curation, formal analysis, validation, writing original draft. MT software, visualization, formal analysis, reviewing and editing. MHS conceptualization, visualization, resources, supervision, project administration, funding acquisition, writing/reviewing and editing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Munir H. Shah.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOC 3122 kb)

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Batool, M., Toqeer, M. & Shah, M.H. Assessment of water quality, trace metal pollution, source apportionment and health risks in the groundwater of Chakwal, Pakistan. Environ Geochem Health 45, 4327–4352 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-023-01501-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-023-01501-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation