1 Introduction

Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education is important for social, cultural, and economic development and sustainability in the twenty-first century (Sun et al., 2021). In fact, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (2022) recommended teaching STEM subjects to ensure sustainability. STEM education is also critical for the development of twenty-first century skills such as critical thinking, creativity, and problem solving (English, 2017). Its connections to computational thinking (CT), which includes skills such as algorithmic thinking, and collaboration, are also worthy of note (Sırakaya et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2022). Therefore, international interest in STEM education has increased, and the role of STEM learning attitudes has become a significant research topic (Ching et al., 2019; Sisman et al., 2021).

Previous research has shed light on the role of STEM education in the modern workforce. Maltese and Tai (2011) showed that STEM learning attitudes are effective in choosing STEM fields and Bati et al. (2017) demonstrated how STEM is associated with twenty-first century skills. In addition to this, evidence suggests that STEM attitudes predict a student’s CT abilities (Sırakaya et al., 2020). The findings also reported that STEM attitudes are associated with skills such as abstraction, logical thinking, innovation, and entrepreneurship (Bilbao et al., 2017). However, most of the studies have been conducted with university students or high school students who are considered closer to the workforce (Arastoopour Irgens et al., 2020; Jiang et al., 2023; Weintrop et al., 2014). STEM education may actually have the greatest impact at the primary school level (Daugherty et al., 2014). According to related research, children's aspirations in STEM fields are largely shaped at the ages of 10–14 and show little change after this age (Archer et al., 2012; Tai et al., 2006). Hence, determining STEM learning attitudes at an early age to reveal associated variables has become a valuable endeavor (Sun et al., 2021). Such research can offer insights into students' future careers when assessing their high school and university course choices. It can also give greater awareness about thinking skills, which affect student performance (English, 2017; Sisman et al., 2021). Uncovering the relationship between STEM learning attitude and twenty-first century thinking skills, which have not yet received enough attention in primary school education, can provide a foundational awareness that helps younger students that may eventually find themselves in a STEM field.

2 The ımportance of the study

In the report "The STEM Need in Turkey for 2023" by the Turkish Industry and Business Association (2017), it was reported that approximately 31% of employment in STEM fields in Turkey is unmet. Moreover, the number of students graduating from STEM fields in Turkey is far behind when compared to OECD countries (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2017). Reasons for such a low number of students pursuing STEM fields include lack of knowledge regarding STEM and career interest issues (Bati et al., 2017; Blotnicky et al., 2018). However, the main concern has to do with students' attitudes towards STEM learning (Maltese & Tai, 2011). Attitudes change over time, although interest in science tends to be high for younger students (Osborne et al., 2003). This is also true for STEM fields (Ching et al., 2019; Sun et al., 2021). Developing positive attitudes towards STEM learning from an early age will affect thinking skills, and this will result in positive determination in both cognitive and affective domains (Bati et al., 2017; Daugherty et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2022). Therefore, it is important to understand the variables associated with STEM learning attitudes from an early age.

STEM learning cannot be a priority only for high school and university students. Students enter the STEM pipeline in primary school. Over time, many leak out of the STEM pipeline for various reasons (Ball et al., 2017). While previous studies focused on the final stages of the STEM pipeline (Arastoopour Irgens et al., 2020; Jiang et al., 2023), this study examines the primary school years, which is the entry point. The aim of this study is to analyze the variables related to learning attitude in sustaining the flow of young learners in the STEM pipeline. Related literature tested some relationships between STEM and CT in older age groups (Günbatar & Bakırcı, 2019; Liao et al., 2022). However, the relationship between STEM and twenty-first century thinking skills has not yet been examined in detail. Moreover, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that the relationships between STEM, CT, and twenty-first century thinking skills in young age groups have been addressed.

3 Theoretical background

In this study, the relationship between STEM learning attitudes, CT, and twenty-first century thinking skills was investigated. The theoretical infrastructure of the study was based on Sternberg's (1997) theory of mental self-government. According to Sternberg (1998), mental self-government is a person's preference for how to think while learning or after learning information. Problem solving, algorithmic thinking, creative thinking, or abstractions skills that students are compelled to use in their daily lives fall under the self-government of the individual. Simply put, the individual tends to prefer the way of thinking that is most appropriate and comfortable (Kuan & Zhang, 2022). An individual chooses may not show how talented the individual is, but it explains the way of thinking that the individual prefers for the situation (Zhang et al., 2022). An individual with a positive STEM learning attitude is expected to prefer the components that make up CT and twenty-first century thinking skills (Jiang et al., 2023). Therefore, the theoretical framework of the study can be associated with this model.

3.1 Computational thinking

Although there is no single definition of CT, it can be understood as a series of thinking activities, including problem solving, logical organization, abstraction, and algorithmic thinking processes (Wing, 2006). Román-González et al. (2019) defined CT as a skill that can be used to solve real-world problems and transferred to appropriate environments. However, in many other studies, CT has been associated with creativity, collaboration, critical thinking, and communication skills (Bati et al., 2017; Liao et al., 2022; Relkin et al., 2020). The associations related to CT are visualized in Fig. 1 with a word cluster. These related concepts can contribute to students' developing and testing models and strengthening their communication skills in group work at the primary school level (Città et al., 2019; Ye et al., 2022). These classifications related to CT have also been associated with STEM (Günbatar & Bakırcı, 2019).

Fig. 1
figure 1

CT related elements

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Previous studies have found positive relationships between STEM education and CT (Lee & Malynsmith, 2020; Liao et al., 2022). For example, Sırakaya et al. (2020) and Sun et al. (2021) reported that STEM learning attitudes predicted CT skills. However, this relationship has not yet been investigated at the primary school level. In addition, no evidence has been presented regarding the importance of twenty-first century skills in the relationship between STEM learning attitudes and CT.

3.2 21st century thinking skills

To cope with the demands of the twenty-first century, students need more understanding than what is provided in basic courses (Sahin, 2009). For this, accessing knowledge, using knowledge, and transferring knowledge to new situations is of great importance (Thornhill-Miller et al., 2023). A wide spectrum, ranging from communication skills to self-directional skills, falls within the scope of twenty-first century thinking skills (Partnership for twenty-first century skills, 2014). For this reason, framework for twenty-first century learning is generally used instead of the definition of twenty-first century thinking skills (Battelle for Kids, 2022). The framework in Fig. 2 depicts the skills, knowledge, and expertise that students need to have in order to be successful in their future work and lives. In addition, keywords from the framework for twenty-first century learning such as “mathematics”, “science”, and “entrepreneurship” overlap with the concepts of STEM education.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Framework for twenty-first century learning (Battelle for kids, 2022, p.2)

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In previous studies, STEM education was associated with themes within the framework of twenty-first century skills, such as critical thinking (Mater et al., 2022), problem solving (English, 2023), algorithmic thinking (Sarı et al., 2022), communication skills (Wilkins et al., 2015), career skills and scientific process skills (Hiğde & Aktamış, 2022), and creativity (Uğraş, 2020). Cohen et al. (2017) tried to develop students' twenty-first century skills with the Acquainting Metro Atlanta Youth with STEM project, while Dare et al. (2021) addressed the impact that twenty-first century thinking skills had on teachers' understanding of STEM concepts. In Han et al.'s (2021) study, twenty-first century skills were shown to be among the factors affecting students' STEM learning. Therefore, STEM education and related STEM learning attitudes can be associated with twenty-first century thinking skills.

On this basis, the research questions addressed in the study have been formulated as follows:

  1. 1.

    What is the scoring of STEM learning attitude, CT, and twenty-first century thinking skills in primary school?

  2. 2.

    What is the relationship between STEM learning attitudes, CT, and twenty-first century thinking skills?

4 Relationships among research variables

4.1 The relationship between attitude towards STEM learning and 21st century thinking skills

While the current landscape in education emphasizes the importance of developing students' twenty-first century skills through various standards (International Society for Technology in Education [ISTE], 2015; Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2014), studies indicate that there are gaps in the education and training (Gretter & Yadav, 2016). These shortcomings have led to widespread concern regarding the growth of twenty-first century skills in developed and developing societies (Thornhill-Miller et al., 2023). As our world is more global than ever, developing twenty-first century skills requires a coherent or integrated educational style that brings together different disciplines (Goodwin & Sommervold, 2012). For this reason, STEM-based learning is recognized as vital to this approach (Salleh et al., 2020).

The curricula of countries with high performance in international exams seem to be very successful in implementing the STEM approach (Khalil & Osman, 2017). The success of these curricula is that they create learning opportunities that foster and broaden the application of twenty-first century skills (Richardo et al., 2023; Sun et al., 2021; Tekdal, 2021). Learning attitudes towards STEM are one aspect of twenty-first century skills (Lavi et al., 2021; Swaid, 2015).

4.2 The relationship between attitude towards STEM learning and CT

Although no consensus exists on the official definition of CT, there is a common view that it is necessary for everyone and daily life in the new century (Relkin et al., 2020; Wing, 2006). Facing the challenges of the twenty-first century requires the advancement of CT skills (Tekdal, 2021; Ye et al., 2022), which can be applied to a wide range of problems and environments (Román-González et al., 2019). CT is not only associated with computer science but with many and diverse fields such as mathematics and science (Luo et al., 2020), engineering (Dagiene & Stupuriene, 2016), and art (Angeli & Valanides, 2020). Judging by these fields, the connection between STEM and CT skills should become more evident. Indeed, the literature has revealed that STEM and CT show a linear relationship (Günbatar & Bakırcı, 2019; Liao et al., 2022; Sun et al., 2021). This would indicate that learning attitudes towards STEM can predict CT (Swaid, 2015).

4.3 The relationship between 21st century thinking skills and CT

According to Angeli and Valanides (2020), to catch up with twenty-first century societies, individuals need to be computer literate and have computer fluency and CT skills. However, twenty-first century skills are not solely based on computer literacy, as they need to be viewed from a broader perspective. Many organizations that develop international standards and policies in the field of education (ISTE, Computer Science Teachers Association, The National Research Council) and large-scale companies (Meta, Google, Microsoft, etc.) have advocated for widespread acquisition of CT, an area of needed competency in the twenty-first century, at least on a basic level. On the other hand, according to the ISTE (2015), today's learners need to be trained to keep up with developments in a constantly evolving technological environment. This is only possible with CT, the new literacy of the twenty-first century (Richardo et al., 2023). Based on all this information, it is possible to say that CT is one aspect of twenty-first century skills (Thornhill-Miller et al., 2023).

4.4 The relationship between 21st century thinking skills, attitudes towards STEM learning and CT

It is believed that STEM-based learning improves students' skills to cope with problems in the twenty-first century (Salleh et al., 2020). In addition, positive attitudes towards STEM certainly seem to play an important role in the acquisition of the skills targeted by STEM education (Arastoopour Irgens et al., 2020) and contribute to the development of CT skills in learning environments (Città et al., 2019; Uğraş, 2020). Therefore, STEM learning attitudes are important in terms of CT and twenty-first century skills (Wang et al., 2022). In this respect, it is possible to examine the connection between STEM and CT skills and the mediating role of twenty-first century skills in this connection. Related studies emphasize the importance of STEM designs that focus on CT and twenty-first century skills in learning (Lavi et al., 2021; Richardo et al., 2023; Swaid, 2015). While CT is a framework that brings together multiple components, STEM is an approach that combines different disciplines. Shaped around twenty-first century skills, it is quite possible that these two concepts affect each other.

5 Method

This study investigates the relationship between primary school students' STEM learning attitude, CT, and twenty-first century thinking skills. The study examined the relationship between more than two variables and the level of these relationships, if there was one at all. The survey method was adopted for this purpose (Karasar, 2012). The model developed in the study examining the mediating role of twenty-first century thinking skills in the relationship between STEM learning attitude and CT skills was tested with structural equation modelling (SEM). The tested model is presented in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Default model

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The hypotheses considered in the study are as follows:

  • H1. Students' attitudes towards STEM learning positively predict their twenty-first century thinking skills.

  • H2. STEM learning attitude is a positive predictor of CT.

  • H3. There is a positive relationship between twenty-first century thinking skills and CT.

  • H4. twenty-first century thinking skills have a mediating role between STEM learning attitude and CT.

6 Participants

A total of 493 primary school students aged 9–12 years (M = 9.62, SD = 0.72) living in the Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey participated in the study. The sample was determined by convenience sampling technique. Of the students, 248 (50.3%) were female and 245 (49.7%) were male. In terms of socioeconomic status, 57 (11.6%) of the students reported that their families were poor, 350 (71%) had moderate wealth, and 86 (17.4%) had a good socioeconomic status. In terms of parental education, 16 (3.2%) of the students' mothers were illiterate, 162 (32.9%) had primary school education, 124 (25.2%) had secondary school education, 112 (22.7%) had high school education, and 79 (16%) had undergraduate or higher education. It was also observed that 11 (2.2%) of the students' fathers were illiterate, 143 (29%) had primary school education, 107 (21.7%) had secondary school education, 130 (26.4%) had high school education, and 102 (20.7%) had undergraduate or higher education.

7 Data collection tools

7.1 Personal ınformation form

In the study, a questionnaire was prepared by the authors to obtain demographic information about the students. In the form, students were asked about their gender, age, socioeconomic status, and the educational status of their parents.

7.2 STEM learning attitude scale

The STEM learning attitude scale (STEM-LAS), developed by Sun et al. (2021), was implemented to elucidate attitudes that the students had towards STEM learning. The scale consists of items covering mathematics, science, and information technology curriculum related to STEM education in primary school. There are 25 items in total in the scale, which was developed to determine students' understanding of the subject, attitudes towards STEM learning, and attitudes towards learning materials. The 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree) includes 9 items in the mathematics sub-dimension, 7 items in the science sub-dimension, and 9 items in the information technology sub-dimension. High scores obtained from the scale mean that the STEM learning attitude is positive. The scale was adapted into Turkish within the scope of this study.

7.3 21st century skills scale

A multidimensional twenty-first century skills scale developed by Çevik and Şentürk (2019) was also used in the study. The scale consists of knowledge and technology literacy skills, critical thinking and problem-solving skills, entrepreneurship and innovation skills, social responsibility and leadership skills, and career consciousness sub-dimensions. In this study, knowledge and technology literacy skills (15 items), critical thinking and problem-solving skills (6 items), and entrepreneurship and innovation skills (10 items) were used. The knowledge and technology literacy skills dimension includes statements such as "I have an idea for changes and innovations in the world," the critical thinking and problem-solving skills dimension includes "I talk about the subjects I have learned without thinking," and the entrepreneurship and innovation skills dimension includes "I think about methods and techniques that will make people's lives easier". In the 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree), negative statements are reverse-coded. Accordingly, a high score means increased twenty-first century thinking skills. Scale items are presented in Supplementary Appendix 1.

7.4 CT test

In the study, TechCheck-2, developed by Relkin et al. (2020), was used to reveal the CT skills of primary school students. TechCheck-2 contains items covering algorithmic thinking, modular structure, control structures, representation, software/hardware, and debugging dimensions of CT. There are 17 items in the test, and the first two questions are practice questions. The evaluation is based on 15 items. Questions prepared in a multiple-choice format are scored 1–0. The Turkish adaptation of TechCheck-2 was conducted by the Alkış Küçükaydın and Akkanat (2022) in another sample.

8 Procedure

In the study, the personal information form and other measurement tools were combined online and converted into a single form. For the implementation of the prepared form, permission was first obtained from the Necmettin Erbakan University Social and Human Sciences Ethics Committee. Then, ethics committee permission was sent to school principals for implementation permission. The school principals delivered the relevant form to the teachers and informed them about the parental consent form. Those who volunteered among the students who filled out the parental consent form filled out the application form online with the support of the teacher during class hours. Data were collected at the beginning of the 2023–2024 academic year.

8.1 Validity and reliability studies of measurement tools

The validity and reliability analysis results of the measurement tools used in the study are presented in this section.

STEM-LAS was adapted into Turkish for the first time in this study. According to confirmatory factor analysis, the factor loadings of the items on the scale ranged between 0.641 and 0.963. The fit index values of the scale are χ2 /df = 3.44, RMSEA = 0.07 [90% CI: 0.06/0.07], AGFI = 0.90, NFI = 0.90, GFI = 0.90, and CFI = 0.96. In this case, the scale has acceptable fit values. Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the math dimension of the scale is 0.98, for the science dimension it is 0.93, and for the information technology dimension it is 0.97. The AVE value for the math dimension is 0.84 and the CR value is 0.97; the AVE value for the science dimension is 0.76 and the CR value is 0.96; and the AVE value for the information technology dimension is 0.83 and the CR value is 0.96.

The goodness of fit values obtained according to the confirmatory factor analysis for the twenty-first century skills scale are as follows: χ2 /df = 3.64, RMSEA = 0.07 [90% CI: 0.06/0.07], AGFI = 0.91, NFI = 0.91, GFI = 0.92, CFI = 0.92. Cronbach's alpha coefficient 0.97 for the knowledge and technology literacy skills dimension of the scale, 0.89 for the critical thinking and problem-solving skills dimension, and 0.94 for the entrepreneurship and innovation skills dimension. All results of the scales are presented in Supplementary Appendix 3.

The values obtained according to the item analysis for TechCheck-2 are as follows: pjx = 0.60, rjx = 0.48, KR-20 = 0.76, and KR-21 = 0.72. These findings show that the items are of medium difficulty, discrimination is good, and reliability is high (Baykul, 2000). Cronbach's alpha coefficient of the scale is 0.72.

9 Data analysis

The data collected from the students was first transferred to the SPSS 26.0 program. Normality distributions of the data were checked, and descriptive statistical analyses were performed. The skewness and kurtosis coefficients of the data (-0.83 and.22 for STEM-LAS, -1.47 and 1.43 for twenty-first century thinking skills, -0.36 and -0.38 for TechCheck-2) and Kolmogorov–Smirnov test findings (p > 0.05) were evaluated to test normality distribution. It was assumed that the data were normally distributed (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). The kurtosis critical ratio value of the data was found to be less than 10 (Kline, 2015), and then the suitability of the data for factor analysis was tested with Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (0.68 for STEM-LAS, 0.85 for twenty-first century thinking skills, 0.70 for TechCheck-2) and Bartlett Sphericity (p < 0.05). VIF (between 1.00 and 1.06), tolerance coefficients (between 0.49 and 0.99), and condition index (between 1.00 and 7.32) were evaluated in the analyses to determine whether there was a multicollinearity problem. The data obtained from TechTech-2 was converted into standard Z scores.

The AMOS 26.0 program was used to test the model. Consequently, χ2/df (< 5), RMSEA (< 0.08), GFI, AGFI, NFI, and CFI (> 0.90) values were examined (Anderson & Gerbing, 1984; Kline, 2015). The maximum likelihood estimation method was used to test the model. In determining the mediating role of twenty-first century thinking skills in the relationship between STEM-LAS and CT skills, 5000 re-samples and bias-corrected bootstrap 90% confidence intervals were used (MacKinnon et al., 2002).

10 Results and discussion

10.1 Descriptive statistics

Firstly, STEM-LAS, twenty-first century thinking skills, and CT test scores of the students were analyzed. Descriptive analysis results are presented in Table 1. It was observed that student attitudes were above average in STEM-LAS overall (M = 86.25, SD = 1.30) and in all sub-dimensions (Mmath = 32.04, SD = 1.37; Mscience = 23.31, SD = 1.25; Minformation technology = 30.96, SD = 1.34). Student scores were also high on the twenty-first century skills scale (M = 117.80, SD = 0.71). However, the scores obtained in the critical thinking and problem-solving skills dimension of the scale were below average (M = 17.22, SD = 1.18). The average score obtained from the CT test was 10 (range = 15, SD = 0.19).

Table 1 Descriptive Statistics of Instruments
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10.2 Relationships between STEM learning attitude, 21st century skills, and CT

Pearson correlation coefficients were evaluated to determine the relationship between STEM-LAS, twenty-first century skills, and CT skills of primary school students. A positive correlation was detected between each of STEM-LAS and twenty-first century skills (r = 0.19, p < 0.01), STEM-LAS and CT skills (r = 0.18, p < 0.01), and twenty-first century skills and CT skills (r = 0.19, p < 0.01).

10.3 Path analysis

After the preliminary analyses, the model was tested. The goodness-of-fit indices of the model testing the effect of STEM-LAS and twenty-first century thinking skills on CT thinking are as follows: χ2 /df = 4.12, RMSEA = 0.04 [90% CI: 0.12/0.16], AGFI = 0.94, NFI = 0.95, GFI = 0.93, CFI = 0.96. After the validation of the measurement model, the research hypotheses were tested through the structural model with latent variables (Table 2). First, hypothesis H1 (STEM-LAS ͢ twenty-first century skills) was tested. According to the SEM findings, STEM-LAS predicted twenty-first century skills (β = 0.13, p < 0.01). H1 was, therefore, supported.

Table 2 SEM Results (n = 493)
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Based on testing of the first hypothesis, there is a positive relationship between STEM-LAS and twenty-first century skills. According to Lavi et al. (2021), students who have a positive attitude towards STEM have a framework in which they can participate in twenty-first century learning. Those twenty-first century skills that are necessary in the real world are actually a component of STEM. STEM helps students develop problem-solving skills and critical and analytical thinking, which leads them to make connections with the real world (Goodwin & Sommervold, 2012). Therefore, the acquisition of twenty-first century skills in young students who develop positive attitudes towards STEM can be parallel to this. One of the main goals of STEM education is to support the honing of skills students need to find success in their professional lives (OECD, 2017). These skills are identified in the framework for twenty-first century learning, and those needed for innovation and design-oriented environments are included in the scope of STEM. Clearly, students with positive attitudes regarding STEM have taken the first step to acquiring these skills.

Before testing could take place on the other hypotheses, an evaluation was first conducted on a model in which twenty-first century skills were the mediating variable. According to the SEM findings, STEM-LAS predicts CT (β = 0.18, p < 0.01). This meant that hypothesis H2 was supported. Similarly, the effect of the mediator variable twenty-first century skills on CT was found to be significant (β = 0.21, p < 0.01), so hypothesis H3 was also supported.

According to the second hypothesis of the study, STEM-LAS is a positive and significant predictor of CT. Related literature has addressed the benefits of STEM content and contexts in CT (Liao et al., 2022; Luo et al., 2020; Swaid, 2015). The findings of the current study serve as a continuation of the literature by showing that STEM-LAS also affect CT. In STEM education, students are provided with opportunities to simultaneously experience the process of developing scientific knowledge and developing basic skills (Wang et al., 2022). Consistent with this perspective, CT offers goals similar to those of STEM education. This is because the components that CT is related to (see Fig. 3) indicate that it is not only about computer science, but includes skills that fall within the scope of STEM. Therefore, positive attitudes towards STEM influence the development of CT. This may provide insight for the literature (Rubinstein & Chor, 2014) that has found it difficult to link CT to STEM.

The inclusion of the mediating variable twenty-first century skills in the model showed that the path from STEM-LAS to CT was significant (β = 0.21, p < 0.01). Hypothesis H4 was supported on this basis. In addition, twenty-first century skills, together with STEM-LAS, explained 33% of the variance in CT. The factor loadings of the STEM-LAS latent variable (math factor loading = 0.93, science factor loading = 0.93, information technology factor loading = 0.90) were above 0.90, and the factor loadings of the components of twenty-first century thinking skills (knowledge and technology literacy factor loading = 0.64, critical thinking and problem solving factor loading = 0.42, entrepreneurship and innovation factor loading = 0.52) were above 0.42.

Several significant relationships between STEM-LAS, CT, and twenty-first century skills were tested and confirmed. Previous literature has shown that thinking skills are an important predictor of CT in older age groups (Cohen et al., 2017; Günbatar & Bakırcı, 2019; Liao et al., 2022). The study confirmed these claims at the primary school level. In addition, many studies have emphasized the importance of CT in STEM education (Bati et al., 2017; Dare et al., 2021; Han et al., 2021; Jiang et al., 2023). With this study, the effect of STEM attitudes on both twenty-first century thinking skills and CT skills was confirmed. Therefore, students with positive STEM attitudes are expected to actively participate in CT-based activities and careers. Because while CT covers more than one skill, STEM combines more than one discipline, this makes it possible to address STEM and CT together.

11 Theoretical and practical ımplications

These findings have both theoretical and practical implications. First, it is already accepted that it is important to develop CT skills at the primary school level. The findings of the study imply that these skills should be developed by exploring STEM attitudes and thinking skills. If STEM attitudes are positive and twenty-first century thinking skills are developed, developing CT skills will be much easier. Since twenty-first century thinking skills mediate the relationship between STEM attitudes and CT skills, teachers should utilize STEM activities in their classrooms to develop their students' thinking skills. This can help shape student attitudes towards STEM in a positive way. Because students in Turkey have many stereotypes towards STEM fields (Esen et al., 2022), negative attitudes towards STEM has become an issue (Uğraş, 2020). Reshaping perceptions at an early age can, therefore, be greatly beneficial. In addition, considering the interdisciplinary nature of STEM, these elements should be integrated into CT-related tasks.

In terms of the theoretical contributions of the study, we can say, firstly, that the relationship between attitudes and thinking skills stands out. Within the performance-oriented education system in Turkish culture, teachers focus more on their students having a good knowledge of STEM and getting high scores in tests (Hiğde & Aktamış, 2022). However, the findings draw attention to the importance of attitudes. Students who develop positive attitudes towards STEM will mobilize thinking skills on their own. This provides a basis for the theory of mental self-government (Sternberg, 1998). As a result, the model tested at the primary school level combines cognitive and affective variables.

12 Limitations and recommendations

Although the study provides new findings at the primary school level, it has some limitations. First of all, the research findings examined the relationship between STEM-LAS, twenty-first century thinking skills, and CT and adopted a cross-sectional research design. Therefore, a causal relationship between the variables cannot be established, and the findings may not be supported by older students. In addition, since the findings only cover the Turkish sample, there may be differences in studies conducted in different cultures. Moreover, we suggest that future studies examine structural invariance to test the moderating effect of regional factors. The fact that only self-report scales were used in the study carries a risk of social desirability. Therefore, future studies with younger students could use repeated measures and teacher and parent observation forms. This may be beneficial in strengthening validity.

Finally, in the related study, STEM-LAS was found to be effective in improving thinking skills. This may bring a different perspective to STEM studies in terms of attitude-thinking skills. The effect of activities that increase STEM learning attitudes on thinking skills can be emphasized in experimental studies. However, when the dimensions that make up STEM-LAS are taken into consideration, the engineering dimension is not included. It is, therefore, recommended to pay attention to this in future studies.

13 Conclusion

In the study, the relationships between STEM learning attitudes, twenty-first century thinking skills, and CT skills were investigated in primary school students, a population that has not been sufficiently investigated, and positive relationships were found between the variables.

According to this, STEM learning attitudes significantly predict 21st-century skills. In other words, STEM learning attitudes are affect twenty-first century skills, including critical thinking, collaboration and creativity. So, twenty-first century skills can be gained through STEM education.

In addition to, STEM learning attitudes were found to affect CT skills both directly and indirectly. This finding indicates that STEM is now a natural field for CT classes. Therefore, CT should not be seen only as a computer-related field and should be included in STEM education.

In addition, the study drew attention to the relationship between attitude and cognitive skills in a primary school sample. Such an inclusion (i.e., incorporation of attitudes and cognitive skills in a single study) in a study is unique and have been undertaken by many researchers in the literature. As a result, investigating the findings of this pioneering study, in which STEM learning attitude, CT skills and 21st-century thinking skills are addressed together, across various age groups may contribute to expanding the literature.