Abstract
This article centres on the hypothesis that human trafficking for sexual exploitation is not only an organised crime activity, but a crime of relational nature as well. Therefore this study explores the relationships that exist between suspects and victims of sex trafficking, and examines to what extent the nature of sex trafficking has parallels with domestic violence. The study is based on an analysis of 12 police investigations into sex trafficking related to window prostitution in the Amsterdam red-light district in the period 2006–2010. The findings suggest that there are intimate relationships between traffickers and victims, and that these relationships display various characteristics of domestic violence. Aside from intimidation, control and violence, factors such as affection and attachment contribute to the persistency of these relationships. This empirical study shows the theoretical and practical importance of focusing on the relational aspects of sex trafficking and the use of domestic violence knowledge to help identify trafficking situations, as well as for the prosecution of cases and to provide assistance to victims.
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Notes
In the Netherlands, prostitution is a legal and regulated profession. Nevertheless, coerced prostitution and the exploitation of prostitutes is a criminal act and falls under the definition of the offence of human trafficking.
The Amsterdam red-light district is a network of streets and alleys with approximately 300 ‘windows’ that are rented by prostitutes. Window prostitution means that the prostitute is visible behind a window, a position from which she solicits customers who are walking by and are able to look at her. Once the customer has been solicited, the sexual services are provided behind the same window, after the curtains have been closed.
Retrieved July 2013 from the website https://www.gov.uk/domestic-violence-and-abuse
Approximately one in four cases of physical interpersonal partner violence (IPV), are reported to the police (either by the females themselves or by others) (Tjaden and Thoennes 2000). Some women in the study of Dichter and Gelles (2012: 59) felt that the threat of police sanctioning would deter their partners from using violence in the future, while others said that the lack of accountability from formal institutions (including the legal system) made them feel less safe and less protected.
On the basis of the collected data we reported earlier on the investigation of human trafficking by the police and on their cooperation with other government agencies (Verhoeven et al. 2011).
Weitzer (2005: 228 and 2007: 463) states that the definition of ‘coercive sex trafficking’ (the use of force, fraud, or deception to procure, transport, harbour, and sell persons, within and between nations, for purposes of prostitution) does not apply to persons who willingly travel in search of employment in the sex industry. He stresses that many writers lump this kind of migration into the trafficking category. In the light of the discussion about what should be called trafficking, we want to mention that in some of our cases we see that there are situations in which both deception and voluntary travel go hand in hand. Women, for example, hear about possibilities and big earnings in the Dutch sex industry and they agree to travel with some of the suspects to the Netherlands. While working there, they are misled about their expenses and earnings and they are forced to hand over most of their earnings to suspects.
Furthermore, the police use so-called ‘intake conversations’ with victims of human trafficking in which the judicial procedure is explained by a specialised detective with the aim of enabling them to make the decision whether they want to press charges.
Sometimes the police files contained a lot of information about the relationships between victims and suspects, while there was less information on others because it wasn’t the focus of the criminal investigation. We excluded the intimate relationships between suspects and prostitutes that emerged at some point outside the duration of the criminal investigation.
Anna and Musa are fictitious names.
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Verhoeven, M., van Gestel, B., de Jong, D. et al. Relationships Between Suspects and Victims of Sex Trafficking. Exploitation of Prostitutes and Domestic Violence Parallels in Dutch Trafficking Cases. Eur J Crim Policy Res 21, 49–64 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-013-9226-2
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-013-9226-2