Abstract
Providing a conclusive microenvironment for cell growth, proliferation and differentiation is a major developmental strategy in the tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. This is usually achieved in the laboratory by culturing cells in three-dimensional polymer-based scaffolding materials. Here, we describe the fabrication of a cellulose scaffold for tissue engineering purposes from cellulose fiber using a salt leaching method. The 1-n-allyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride (AmimCl) IL was used as a solvent for cellulose. The leaching methodology used in this study offers the unique advantage of providing effective control of scaffold porosity by simply varying cellulose concentration. Morphologic testing of the scaffolds produced revealed pore sizes of 200–500 μm. In addition, the scaffolds had high water adsorption rates and slow degradation rates. To further investigate the suitability of these scaffolds for tissue engineering applications, biocompatibility was checked using an MTT assay and confirmed by Live/Dead® viability testing. In addition, scanning electron microscopy and DAPI studies and in vivo experiment demonstrated the ability of cells to attach to scaffold surfaces, and a biocompatibility of matrices with cells, respectively. The authors describe the environmentally friendly fabrication of a novel cellulose-based tissue engineering scaffold.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Czaja WK, Young DJ, Kawecki M, Brown RM (2007) The future prospects of microbial cellulose in biomedical applications. Biomacromolecules 8:1–12. doi:10.1021/bm060620d
Entcheva E, Bien H, Yin L, Chung CY, Farrell M, Kostov Y (2004) Functional cardiac cell constructs on cellulose-based scaffolding. Biomaterials 25:753–5762. doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2004.01.024
Feng L, Chen Z (2008) Research progress on dissolution and functional modification of cellulose in ionic liquids. J Mol Liq 142:1–5. doi:10.1016/j.molliq.2008.06.007
Gogolewski S, Pennings AJ (1983) Resorbable materials of poly(llactide). III. Porous materials for medical application. Colloid Polym Sci 261:477–484. doi:10.1007/BF01419831
Hou Q, Grijpma DW, Feijen J (2003) Porous polymeric structures for tissue engineering prepared by a coagulation, compression moulding and salt leaching technique. Biomaterials 24:1937–1947. doi:10.1016/S0142-9612(02)00562-8
Jeong WK, Oh SH, Lee JH, Im GI (2008) Repair of osteochondral defects with a construct of mesenchymal stem cells and a polydioxanone/poly(vinyl alcohol) scaffold. Biotechnol Appl Biochem 49:155–164. doi:10.1042/BA20070149
Jingquan H, Tingzhou L, Qinglin W (2013) Facile preparation of mouldable polyvinyl alcohol-borax hydrogels reinforced by well-dispersed cellulose nanoparticles: physical, viscoelastic and mechanical properties. Cellulose 20:2947–2958. doi:10.1007/s10570-013-0082-5
Junji S, Barsotti M, Felice F (2011) Fibrin as a scaffold for cardiac tissue engineering. Biotechnol Appl Biochem 58:301–310. doi:10.1002/bab.49
Karageorgiou V, Kaplan D (2005) Porosity of 3D biomaterial scaffolds and osteogenesis. Biomaterials 26:5474–5491. doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2005.02.002
Katarina N, Pavel H, Tomas S, Katerina K, Vladimira V, Vera L, Vaclav S, Lucie B (2013) Cellulose-based materials as scaffolds for tissue engineering. Cellulose 20:2263–2278. doi:10.1007/s10570-013-0006-4
Kim DB, Jo SM, Lee WS, Park JJ (2004) Physical agglomeration behavior in preparation of cellulose-N-methyl morpholine N-oxide hydrate solutions by simple mixing. J Appl Polym Sci 93:1687–1697. doi:10.1002/app.20607
Kolarova K, Vosmanska V, Rimpelova S, Svorcik V (2013) Effect of plasma treatment on cellulose fiber. Cellulose 20:953–961. doi:10.1007/s10570-013-9863-0
Liu S, Tao D, Zhang L (2012) Cellulose scaffold: a green template for the controlling synthesis of magnetic inorganic nanoparticles. Powder Technol 217:502–509. doi:10.1016/j.powtec.2011.11.010
Ma PX (2004) Scaffolds for tissue fabrication. Mater Today 7:30–35. doi:10.1016/S1369-7021(04)00233-0
Michael FP, Pascale C, Michael FC (2012) The effect of subcritical carbon dioxide on the dissolution of cellulose in the ionic liquid 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate. Cellulose 19:37–44. doi:10.1007/s10570-011-9607-y
Müller FA, Müller L, Hofmann I, Greil P, Wenzel MM, Staudenmaier R (2006) Cellulose-based scaffold materials for cartilage tissue engineering. Biomaterials 27:3955–3963. doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2006.02.031
Oliveira JM, Rodrigues MT, Silva SS, Malafaya PB, Gomes ME, Viegas CA (2006) Novel hydroxyapatite/chitosan bilayered scaffold for osteochondral tissue-engineering applications: scaffold design and its performance when seeded with goat bone marrow stromal cells. Biomaterials 27:6123–6137. doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2006.07.034
Pancrazio J, Wang F, Kelley C (2007) Enabling tools for tissue engineering. Biosens Bioelectron 22:2803–2811. doi:10.1016/j.bios.2006.12.023
Petersen N, Gatenholm P (2011) Bacterial cellulose-based materials and medical devices: current state and perspectives. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 91:1277–1286. doi:10.1007/s00253-011-3432-y
Raymond S, Kvick A, Chanz AH (1995) The structure of cellulose 11: a revisit. Macromolecules 28:8422–8425. doi:10.1021/ma00128a063
Remsing RC, Swatloski RP, Rogers RD, Moyna G (2006) Mechanism of cellulose dissolution in the ionic liquid 1-n-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride: a 13C and 35/37Cl NMR relaxation study on model systems. Chem Commun 12:1271–1273. doi:10.1039/B600586C
Seifalian AM (2011) Manufacturing living organs using tissue engineering strategy. Biotechnol Appl Biochem 58:285–287. doi:10.1002/bab.54
Shilin L, Jian Z, Dandan T, Zhang L (2010) Microfiltration performance of regenerated cellulose membrane prepared at low temperature for wastewater treatment. Cellulose 17:1159–1169. doi:10.1007/s10570-010-9450-6
Singh D, Tripathi A, Zo S, Han SS (2014) Synthesis of composite gelatin-hyaluronic acid-alginate porous scaffold and evaluation for in vitro stem cell growth and in vivo tissue integration. Colloids Surf B 116:502–509. doi:10.1016/j.colsurfb.2014.01.049
Sung HJ, Meredith C, Johnson C, Galis ZS (2004) The effect of scaffold degradation rate on three-dimensional cell growth and angiogenesis. Biomaterials 25:5735–5742. doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2004.01.066
Svensson A, Nicklasson E, Harrah T, Panilaitis B, Kaplan DL, Brittberg M, Gatenholm P (2005) Bacterial cellulose as a potential scaffold for tissue engineering of cartilage. Biomaterials 26:419–431. doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2004.02.049
Teresa CFS, Youssef H, Jorge LC, Thomas E, Lucian AL (2012) A fundamental investigation of the microarchitecture and mechanical properties of tempo-oxidized nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC)-based aerogels. Cellulose 19:1945–1956. doi:10.1007/s10570-012-9761-x
Thi TN, Masaya N, Hiroyuki Y (2010) Microstructure and mechanical properties of bacterial cellulose/chitosan porous scaffold. Cellulose 17:349–363. doi:10.1007/s10570-009-9394-x
Thomson RC, Yaszemski MJ, Powers JM, Mikos AG (1995) Fabrication of biodegradable polymer scaffolds to engineer trabecular bone. J Biomater Sci Polym Ed 7:23–38. doi:10.1163/156856295X00805
Tsioptsias C, Panayiotou C (2008) Preparation of cellulose-nanohydroxyapatite composite scaffolds from ionic liquid solutions. Carbohydr Polym 74:99–105. doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2008.01.022
Wernérus H, Ståhl S (2004) Biotechnological applications for surface-engineered bacteria. Biotechnol Appl Biochem 40:209–228. doi:10.1042/BA20040014
Zadegan S, Hosainalipour M, Rezaie HR, Ghassai H, Shokrgozar MA (2011) Synthesis and biocompatibility evaluation of cellulose/hydroxyapatite nanocomposite scaffold in 1-n-allyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride. Mater Sci Eng C Mater 31:954–961. doi:10.1016/j.msec.2011.02.021
Zhang H, Wu J, Zhang J, He J (2005) 1-Allyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride room temperature ionic liquid: a new and powerful nonderivatizing solvent for cellulose. Macromolecules 38:8272–8277. doi:10.1021/ma0505676
Zhijiang C, Jaehwan K (2010) Bacterial cellulose/poly (ethylene glycol) composite: characterization and first evaluation of biocompatibility. Cellulose 17:83–91. doi:10.1007/s10570-009-9362-5
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by a Yeungnam University research grant (2010).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Shin, E.J., Choi, S.M., Singh, D. et al. Fabrication of cellulose-based scaffold with microarchitecture using a leaching technique for biomedical applications. Cellulose 21, 3515–3525 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-014-0368-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-014-0368-2