Abstract
Background
Black adolescents commonly experience unfair treatment from teachers and other school staff that can undermine Black adolescents’ engagement in school and their perceptions of adults as trustworthy.
Objective
This study aimed to address the overarching research question: “How do unfair experiences with school staff manifest and impact Black adolescents?”.
Method
This study used a mixed methods approach guided by two sub-questions. Our qualitative strand of inquiry used interview data from 25 Black adolescents, their parents, and another familial adult (75 total interviews) to explore the sub-question: “How do unfair experiences with school staff unfold?” Our quantitative strand analyzed survey data from 216 Black adolescents to address the sub-question: “Is a specific type of unfair experience, teacher racial discrimination, associated with Black adolescents having fewer natural mentors (supportive non-parental adults from adolescents’ everyday lives) via lower trust toward adults?”.
Results
Analyses of interview data suggested experiencing specific types of unfair treatment— (a) being singled out, (b) observing favoritism, (c) feeling belittled, and (d) unwarranted or overly harsh punishment—was followed by students disengaging from class, schoolwork, or teachers. Analyses of survey data indicated unfair treatment in the form of teacher racial discrimination was negatively associated with the quantity of natural mentors via lower perceptions of adults as trustworthy.
Conclusions
Collectively, our findings suggest unfair treatment by school staff may set in motion a domino effect that negatively influences Black students’ engagement with school and undermines their connection with supportive adults.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Code Availability
This is available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Benson, P. L. (2007). Developmental assets: An overview of theory, research, and practice. In R. K. Silbereisen & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Approaches to positive youth development (pp. 33–58). SAGE Publications.
Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Parent-child attachment and healthy human development. Basic Books.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Harvard University Press.
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (2006). The bioecological model of human development. In R. M. Lerner & W. Damon (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Theoretical models of human development (pp. 793–828). John Wiley & Sons.
Bryan, J., Williams, J. M., Kim, J., Morrison, S. S., & Caldwell, C. H. (2018). Perceived teacher discrimination and academic achievement among urban Caribbean Black and African American youth: School bonding and family support as a protective factor. Urban Education. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085918806959
Butler-Barnes, S. T., Chavous, T. M., Hurd, N., & Varner, F. (2013). African American adolescents’ academic persistence: A strengths-based approach. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(9), 1443–1458. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9962-0
Caldwell, L. L., & Witt, P. A. (2018). Ten principles of youth development. In P. A. Witt & L. L. Caldwell (Eds.), Youth development: Principles and practices in out-of-school time settings (pp. 1–25). Sagemore-Venture.
Charmaz, K. (2014). Constructing grounded theory (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.
Chavous, T. M., Rivas-Drake, D., Smalls, C., Griffin, T., & Cogburn, C. (2008). Gender matters, too: The influences of school racial discrimination and racial identity on academic engagement outcomes among African American adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 44(3), 637–654. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.637
Collins, K. M., Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Jiao, Q. G. (2006). Prevalence of mixed-methods sampling designs in social science research. Evaluation & Research in Education, 19(2), 83–101. https://doi.org/10.2167/eri421.0
Cooper, S. M., Brown, C., Metzger, I., Clinton, Y., & Guthrie, B. (2013). Racial discrimination and African American adolescents’ adjustment: Gender variation in family and community social support, promotive and protective factors. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22, 15–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-012-9608-y
D’hondt, F., Eccles, J. S., Van Houtte, M., & Stevens, P. A. (2016). Perceived ethnic discrimination by teachers and ethnic minority students’ academic futility: Can parents prepare their youth for better or for worse? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45(6), 1075–1089. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0428-z
DeCuir-Gunby, J. T., & Schultz, P. A. (2017). Developing a mixed methods proposal: A practical guide for beginning researchers. SAGE.
Dinesen, P. T., & Bekkers, R. (2017). The foundations of individuals’ generalized social trust: A review. In P. A. M. Van Lange, B. Rockenbach, & T. Yamagishi (Eds.), Trust in Social Dilemmas (pp. 77–100). Oxford University Press.
DuBois, D. L., Portillo, N., Rhodes, J. E., Silverthorn, N., & Valentine, J. C. (2011). How effective are mentoring programs for youth? A systematic assessment of the evidence. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 12(2), 57–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100611414806
DuBois, D.L. (2006). Interpersonal Trust Scale for Adolescents. Unpublished document.
Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society. (2nd ed.). Norton.
Fan, X. (2019). Discrimination experience, family relations, and generalized trust in China. Social Science Research, 77, 115–129.
Fisher, C. B., Wallace, S. A., & Fenton, R. E. (2000). Discrimination distress during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29(6), 679–695. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026455906512
García-Coll, C., Lamberty, G., Jenkins, R., McAdoo, H. P., Crnic, K., Wasik, B. H., & Vázquez-García, H. (1996). An integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children. Child Development, 67(5), 1891–1914. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131600
Gibson, P., Haight, W., Cho, M., Nashandi, N. J. C., & Yoon, Y. J. (2019). A mixed methods study of Black Girls’ vulnerability to out-of-school suspensions: The intersection of race and gender. Children and Youth Services Review, 102, 169–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.05.011
Glanville, J. L., & Paxton, P. (2007). How do we learn to trust? A confirmatory tetrad analysis of the sources of generalized trust. Social Psychology Quarterly, 70(3), 230–242. https://doi.org/10.1177/019027250707000303
Greene, J. C., Caracelli, V. J., & Graham, W. F. (1989). Toward a conceptual framework for mixed-method evaluation designs. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 11(3), 255–274. https://doi.org/10.2307/1163620
Greene, M. L., Way, N., & Pahl, K. (2006). Trajectories of perceived adult and peer discrimination among Black, Latino, and Asian American adolescents: Patterns and psychological correlates. Developmental Psychology, 42(2), 218–236. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.2.218
Griffith, A. N. (2016). Trajectories of trust within the youth program context. Qualitative Psychology, 3(1), 98–119. https://doi.org/10.1037/qup0000049
Griffith, A. N., & Larson, R. W. (2016). Why trust matters: How confidence in leaders transforms what adolescents gain from youth programs. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 26(4), 790–804. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12230
Hayes, A. F., & Preacher, K. J. (2014). Statistical mediation analysis with a multicategorical independent variable. British Journal of Mathematical & Statistical Psychology, 67(3), 451–470. https://doi.org/10.1111/bmsp.12028
Hope, E. C., Skoog, A. B., & Jagers, R. J. (2015). “It’ll never be the white kids, it’ll always be us”: Black high school students’ evolving critical analysis of racial discrimination and inequity in schools. Journal of Adolescent Research, 30(1), 83–112. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558414550688
Hurd, N. M., & Sellers, R. M. (2013). Black adolescents’ relationships with natural mentors: Associations with academic engagement via social and emotional development. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 19(1), 76–85. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031095
Hurd, N. M., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2014). An analysis of natural mentoring relationship profiles and associations with mentees’ mental health: Considering links via support from important others. American Journal of Community Psychology, 53(1–2), 25–36. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-013-9598-y
Hurd, N. M., Sánchez, B., Zimmerman, M. A., & Caldwell, C. H. (2012). Natural mentors, racial identity, and educational attainment among African American adolescents: Exploring pathways to success. Child Development, 83(4), 1196–1212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01769.x
Hurd, N. M., Hussain, S., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2018). School disorder, school connectedness, and psychosocial outcomes: Moderation by a supportive figure in the school. Youth & Society, 50(3), 328–350. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X15598029
Kendellen, K., & Camiré, M. (2015). Examining former athletes’ developmental experiences in high school sport. SAGE Open. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244015614379
Kramer, C. S., Wilcox, K. C., & Lawson, H. A. (2020). Positive youth development as an improvement resource in odds-beating secondary schools. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 64(4), 301–315. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2020.1769011
Mayer, R. C., Davis, J. H., & Schoorman, F. D. (1995). An integrative model of organizational trust. Academy of Management Review, 20(3), 709–734. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1995.9508080335
McGrath, K. F., & Van Bergen, P. (2015). Who, when, why and to what end? Students at risk of negative student-teacher relationships and their outcomes. Educational Research Review, 14, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2014.12.001
McKnight, D. H., Cummings, L. L., & Chervany, N. L. (1998). Initial trust formation in new organizational relationships. Academy of Management Review, 22(3), 473–490. https://doi.org/10.2307/259290
Onwuegbuzie, A. J., Slate, J. R., Leech, N. L., & Collins, K. M. (2009). Mixed data analysis: Advanced integration techniques. International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches, 3(1), 13–33. https://doi.org/10.5172/mra.455.3.1.13
Reddick, R. J., Welton, A. D., Alsandor, D. J., Denyszyn, J. L., & Platt, C. S. (2011). Stories of success: High minority, high poverty public school graduate narratives on assessing higher education. Journal of Advanced Academics, 22(4), 594–618. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932202X11414133
Rhodes, J. E. (2005). A model of youth mentoring. In D. L. DuBois & M. J. Karcher (Eds.), Handbook of youth mentoring (pp. 30–43). Sage Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412976664.n3
Rosenbloom, S. R., & Way, N. (2004). Experiences of discrimination among African American, Asian American, and Latino adolescents in an urban high school. Youth & Society, 35(4), 420–451. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X03261479
Rotenberg, K. J. (Ed.). (2010). Interpersonal trust during childhood and adolescence. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511750946
Rotter, J. B. (1980). Interpersonal trust, trustworthiness, and gullibility. American Psychologist, 35(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.35.1.1
Sánchez, B., Esparza, P., & Colón, Y. (2008). Natural mentoring under the microscope: An investigation of mentoring relationships and Latino adolescents’ academic adjustment. Journal of Community Psychology, 36(4), 468–482. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20250
Schwartz, S. O., Chan, C. S., Rhodes, J. E., & Scales, P. C. (2013). Community developmental assets and positive youth development: The role of natural mentors. Research in Human Development, 10(2), 141–162. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427609.2013.786553
Skiba, R. J., Michael, R. S., Nardo, A. C., & Peterson, R. L. (2002). The color of discipline: Sources of racial and gender disproportionality in school punishment. The Urban Review, 34(4), 317–342. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021320817372
Teddlie, C., & Tashakkori, A. (2009). Foundations of mixed methods research: Integrating quantitative and qualitative approaches in the social and behavioral sciences. Sage Publications.
Tenenbaum, H. R., & Ruck, M. D. (2007). Are teachers’ expectations different for racial minority than for European American students? A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(2), 253–273. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.2.253
Thomas, O. N., Caldwell, C. H., Faison, N., & Jackson, J. S. (2009). Promoting academic achievement: The role of racial identity in buffering perceptions of teacher discrimination on academic achievement among African American and Caribbean Black adolescents. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(2), 420–341. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014578
Van Maele, D., Van Houtte, M., & Forsyth, P. B. (2014). Introduction: Trust as a matter of equity and excellence in education. In D. Van Maele, P. B. Forsyth, & M. Van Houtte (Eds.), Trust and school life: The role of trust for learning, teaching, leading and bridging (pp. 1–33). Springer.
Varga, S. M., & Zaff, J. F. (2018). Webs of support: An integrative framework of relationships, social networks, and social support for positive youth development. Adolescent Research Review, 3, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-017-0076-x
Wegmann, K. M., & Smith, B. (2019). Examining racial/ethnic disparities in school discipline in the context of student-reported behavior infractions. Children and Youth Services Review, 103, 18–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.05.027
Welsh, R. O., & Little, S. (2018). The school discipline dilemma: A comprehensive review of disparities and alternative approaches. Review of Educational Research, 88(5), 752–794. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654318791582
Wittrup, A. R., Hussain, S. B., Albright, J. N., Hurd, N. M., Varner, F. A., & Mattis, J. S. (2019). Natural mentors, racial pride, and academic engagement among Black adolescents: Resilience in the context of perceived discrimination. Youth & Society, 51(4), 463–483. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X16680546
Wong, C. A., Eccles, J. S., & Sameroff, A. (2003). The influence of ethnic discrimination and ethnic identification on African American adolescents school and socioemotional adjustment. Journal of Personality, 71(6), 1197–1232. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.7106012
Zimmerman, M. A., Bingenheimer, J. B., & Behrendt, D. E. (2005). Natural mentoring relationships. In D. L. DuBois & M. J. Karcher (Eds.), Handbook of youth mentoring (pp. 143–157). Sage.
Zimmerman, M. A., Bingenheimer, J. B., & Notaro, P. C. (2002). Natural mentors and adolescent resiliency: A study with urban youth. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30(2), 221–243. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014632911622
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the participants who shared their experiences with us. We are also grateful to Kushani Shah for assisting with qualitative data mining and formatting and to Nara Bilal for assisting with data analysis. The research in this article was funded by a William T. Grant Foundation Scholar Award to the last author. The writing of this manuscript was supported by a William T. Grant Scholar Foundation Mentoring Award to the first and last authors.
Funding
This work was supported by the William T. Grant Foundation (Noelle M. Hurd, P.I.).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
All authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethics Approval
University of Virginia’s Institutional Review Board approved the procedures for this study.
Informed Consent
Informed consent and youth assent were obtained from participants in the study prior to their participation.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Griffith, A.N., Leggett, C., Billingsley, J.T. et al. A Mixed Methods Study Exploring the Nature of Black Adolescents’ Unfair Treatment by School Staff: Implications for Adolescents’ Trust in Adults. Child Youth Care Forum 51, 1063–1089 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-021-09669-3
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-021-09669-3