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The real hues of Red Rain-Kerala, India

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Abstract

This scientific article presents a comprehensive exploration of the intriguing ecological phenomenon known as "red rain", observed in the coastal town located at latitude N 11°.61108 and longitude E 75°.57383 in Kerala, India. The study aims to elucidate the origins, characteristics, and potential environmental implications associated with this phenomenon. Through a meticulous descriptive analysis, incorporating microscopic evaluation, DNA-sequencing, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis, and phylogenetic analysis, we deciphered the underlying factors responsible for the distinct red coloration observed in the rain. Our research findings highlight the presence of specific organic compounds, namely psi-psi Carotene 3,4 didehydro-1,2,7′8'-tetrahydro-1-methoxy-2-oxo and psi-psi and- Carotene 3,3',4,4'-tetradehydro1′2' dihydro 1-hydroxy-1'-methoxy in the algae, Trentepohlia abietina, as the primary contributors to the red color observed in the red rain. The research findings contribute to a deeper understanding of this distinctive occurrence and its implications for the local ecosystem in Kerala.

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Notes

  1. Precise location- (11°.61108N latitude and 75°.57383E longitude), situated at the southernmost tip of the Indian subcontinent which covers an area of about 200 square meters.

  2. The red rain phenomenon occurred in this area, covering an approximate area of 200 square meters, situated at latitude 11°.61108N and longitude 75°.57383E. Occurred in the vicinity of two home during 21st and 25th July 2021.

  3. Two samples were collected during each day. Each sample analysed in triplicates. 4*3 = 12.

  4. Chlorella sp. and Scenedesmus sp. was few in the red rain water, but while culturing in BBM and Jaworski’s medium, these species were growing faster. Therefore, red rain spores subjected to continuous subculturing.

  5. The spores of red rain sample were mounted on specimen stubs using carbon tape and was over coated with gold using JFC 1600, This ion sputtering device performs rapid and efficient gold coating on microscopic specimen, allowing surface visualization.

  6. Using a sterile pipette 5 ml of red rain water transferred to 50 ml of Jaworski’s and BBM Medium and distilled water and cultivated under asceptic conditions.

  7. Looking on previous reports Kumar et al. (2013), the authors have provided the image of sporangia instead of spore and this require an evident correction.

  8. Second spell of rain on 25th July 2021 made a second chance of collection. Similarly, two days spell of red rain reported during July 24th and 30th July 2001 from Trivandrum, Kerala.

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Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the people in Kuriyadi, for helping us in collecting red rain samples, Kerala university for FTIR, Cochin university of Science and Advanced Technology for Scanning Electron Microscope, and Intensively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectroscopy, Rajeev Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology Trivandrum for sequencing assistance. We are also grateful to the Centre for Water Resource Development and Management for their collaboration in this work and support offered in GCMS analysis.

Funding

Authors declare that we have received no grants, funds and financial support during the research as well as during the preparation of this manuscript.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Phycotechnology Laboratory, Department of Botany, Catholicate College, Pathanamthitta, Kerala, 689645, India

    Merin Ann Ninan, Merin Grace Jiji, Thomas Ponnachen Valukattil & Binoy Thomas Thundiathu

  2. Ecology and Environment Research Group, KSCSTE-Centre for Water Resources Development and Management, An Institution of Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment, Government of Kerala, Kunnamangalam, Kozhikode, 673571, India

    Harikumar Sadasivan Pillai Puthenveedu

  3. Polymer Science and Engineering, School of Chemical Science and International and Inter-University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi University, Priyadarsini Hills, Kottayam, Kerala, 686560, India

    Sabu Thomas

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  1. Merin Ann Ninan
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Contributions

Conception and Design of the study: BTT, TVP, HPS, and MAN. Methodology: HPS, ST, BTT and MAN. Data Collection-MAN and HPS, ST. Formal analysis and Investigation—MAN, HKPS, ST and BTT. Writing original draft preparation—MAN and BTT. Writing-Review and editing—MAN, BTT, TVP and MGJ. Expenses—MAN, BTT, HPS. Resources-MAN, BTT, HPS and ST. Supervision—BTT and MGJ.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Binoy Thomas Thundiathu.

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Supplementary Information

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a

–c Spores observed from live corticolous Trentepohlia abietina algae, d—SEM image of sporangia.

Stages of spore germination. Arrows indicates different stages of germination.

Supplementary file3 (DOCX 2182 kb)

Supplementary file4 (MOV 163008 kb)

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Ninan, M.A., Jiji, M.G., Valukattil, T.P. et al. The real hues of Red Rain-Kerala, India. Aerobiologia (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10453-024-09810-4

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