Abstract
Low-level Laser Therapy (LLLT) was widely used in clinical practice for tendon disorders. However, the underlying mechanisms and effectiveness of LLLT in treating tendon injury remain unclear. Therefore, the present study was conducted aiming to summarize the evidence regarding the histological, physiological, and biomechanical effects of LLLT on tendon healing in animal and human models. Four databases were searched for relevant literature. Four independent reviewers screened abstracts and full-text articles, extracted relevant data, evaluated the risk of bias, and quantified the quality of evidence. Database searches yielded 1400 non-duplicated citations. Fifty-five studies were included (50 animal and five human studies). Animal studies revealed that LT had stimulating effects on collagen organization, collagen I and collagen II formation, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-8, transforming growth factor β1, vascular endothelial growth factor, hydroxyproline, maximum load, maximum elongation before breaking, and tendon stiffness. However, LLLT had inhibitory effects on the number of inflammatory cells, histological scores, relative amount of collagen III, cyclooxygenase-2, prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor–α, MMP-1, and MMP-3. Although one human study found that LLLT reduced the concentration of PGE2 in peritendinous tissue of the Achilles tendon, other human studies revealed that the effects of LLLT on the physiology and biomechanics of human tendons remained uncertain. LLLT facilitates tendon healing through various histological, physiological, and biomechanical effects in animal models. Only post-LLLT anti-inflammatory effects were found in human studies.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Gaut, L., and D. Duprez. Tendon development and diseases. Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. 5(1):5–23, 2016.
Raikin, S. M., D. N. Garras, and P. V. Krapchev. Achilles tendon injuries in a United States population. Foot Ankle Int. 34(4):475–480, 2013.
Thomopoulos, S., W. C. Parks, D. B. Rifkin, and K. A. Derwin. Mechanisms of tendon injury and repair. J. Orthop. Res. 33(6):832–839, 2015.
Benjamin, M., and J. Ralphs. Invited review tendons and ligaments-an overview. Histol. Histopathol. 12:1135–1144, 1997.
Sharma, P., and N. Maffulli. Biology of tendon injury: healing, modeling and remodeling. J. Musculoskelet. Neuronal Interact. 6(2):181, 2006.
Obrien, M. Structure and metabolism of tendons. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports. 7(2):55–61, 1997.
Chung, H., T. Dai, S. K. Sharma, et al. The nuts and bolts of low-level laser (light) therapy. Ann. Biomed. Eng. 40(2):516–533, 2012.
Karu, T. Cytochrome c oxidase as the primary photoacceptor upon laser exposure of cultured cells to visible and near IR-range light. Doklady Akademii Nauk. 342:693–695, 1995.
Cotler, H. B., R. T. Chow, M. R. Hamblin, and J. Carroll. The use of low level laser therapy (LLLT) for musculoskeletal pain. MOJ Orthop. Rheumatol. 2(5):00068, 2015.
Lazovic, M., O. Ilic-Stojanovic, M. Kocic, et al. Placebo-controlled investigation of low-level laser therapy to treat carpal tunnel syndrome. Photomed. Laser Surg. 32(6):336–344, 2014.
Sereysky, J. B., E. L. Flatow, and N. Andarawis-Puri. Musculoskeletal regeneration and its implications for the treatment of tendinopathy. Int. J. Exp. Pathol. 94(4):293–303, 2013.
Lipman, K., C. Wang, K. Ting, C. Soo, and Z. Zheng. Tendinopathy: injury, repair, and current exploration. Drug Des. Dev. Ther. 12:591–603, 2018.
Martimbianco, A. L. C., R. E. S. Ferreira, C. O. C. Latorraca, et al. Photobiomodulation with low-level laser therapy for treating Achilles tendinopathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin. Rehabilitation. 34(6):713–722, 2020.
Naterstad, I. F., J. Joensen, J. M. Bjordal, et al. Efficacy of low-level laser therapy in patients with lower extremity tendinopathy or plantar fasciitis: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ Open.12(9):e059479, 2022.
Haslerud, S., L. H. Magnussen, J. Joensen, R. A. Lopes-Martins, and J. M. Bjordal. The efficacy of low-level laser therapy for shoulder tendinopathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Physiother. Res. Int. 20(2):108–125, 2015.
Tumilty, S., J. Munn, S. Mcdonough, et al. Low level laser treatment of tendinopathy: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Photomed. Laser Surg. 28(1):3, 2010.
Huang, Y. Y., A. C. H. Chen, J. D. Carroll, and M. R. Hamblin. Biphasic dose response in low level light therapy. Dose-Response. 7(4):358–383, 2009.
Woodruff, L. D., J. M. Bounkeo, W. M. Brannon, K. S. Dawes, and C. S. Enwemeka. The efficacy of laser therapy in wound repair: a meta-analysis of the literature. Photomed. Laser Surg. 22(3):241–247, 2004.
Moher, D., L. Shamseer, M. Clarke, et al. Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015 statement. Syst. Rev. 4(1):1–9, 2015.
Hooijmans, C. R., M. M. Rovers, R. de Vries, et al. SYRCLE’s risk of bias tool for animal studies. BMC Med. Res. Methodol. 14(1):1–9, 2014.
Sterne, J. A., J. Savović, M. J. Page, et al. RoB 2: a revised tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials. BMJ.366:i4898, 2019.
Sterne, J. A., M. A. Hernán, B. C. Reeves, et al. ROBINS-I: a tool for assessing risk of bias in non-randomised studies of interventions. BMJ.355:i4919, 2016.
Muka, T., M. Glisic, J. Milic, et al. A 24-step guide on how to design, conduct, and successfully publish a systematic review and meta-analysis in medical research. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 35(1):49–60, 2020.
Ioannidis, J. P., N. A. Patsopoulos, and E. Evangelou. Uncertainty in heterogeneity estimates in meta-analyses. BMJ. 335(7626):914–916, 2007.
Balshem, H., M. Helfand, H. J. Schünemann, et al. GRADE guidelines: 3. Rating the quality of evidence. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 64(4):401–406, 2011.
Murad, M. H., R. A. Mustafa, H. J. Schünemann, S. Sultan, and N. Santesso. Rating the certainty in evidence in the absence of a single estimate of effect. Evid. Based Med. 22(3):85–87, 2017.
Casalechi, H. L., A. C. D. Marques, E. A. P. da Silva, et al. Analysis of the effect of phototherapy in model with traumatic Achilles tendon injury in rats. Lasers Med. Sci. 29(3):1075–1081, 2014.
de Souza, M. V., J. D. L. Moreira, M. O. da Silva, et al. Histomorphometric analysis of the Achilles tendon of Wistar rats treated with laser therapy and eccentric exercise. Pesquisa Veterinaria Brasileira. 35:39–50, 2015.
Pinfildi, C. E., É. da Silva, R. A. Folha, et al. Mast cell curve-response in partial Achilles tendon rupture after 830 nm phototherapy. Photomed. Laser Surg. 32(2):88–92, 2014.
Fillipin, L. I., J. L. Mauriz, K. Vedovelli, et al. Low-level laser therapy (LLLT) prevents oxidative stress and reduces fibrosis in rat traumatized Achilles tendon. Lasers Surg. Med. 37(4):293–300, 2005.
Allahverdi, A., D. Sharifi, M. A. Takhtfooladi, et al. Evaluation of low-level laser therapy, platelet-rich plasma, and their combination on the healing of Achilles tendon in rabbits. Lasers Med. Sci. 30(4):1305–1313, 2015.
Haslerud, S., R. A. B. Lopes-Martins, L. Frigo, et al. Low-level laser therapy and cryotherapy as mono- and adjunctive therapies for achilles tendinopathy in rats. Photomed. Laser Surg. 35(1):32–42, 2017.
Naterstad, I. F., R. P. Rossi, R. L. Marcos, et al. Comparison of photobiomodulation and anti-inflammatory drugs on tissue repair on collagenase-induced achilles tendon inflammation in rats. Photomed. Laser Surg. 36(3):137–145, 2018.
de Freitas Dutra Júnior, E., S. M. C. M. Hidd, M. M. Amaral, et al. Treatment of partial injury of the calcaneus tendon with heterologous fibrin biopolymer and/or photobiomodulation in rats. Lasers Med. Sci. 37(2):971–981, 2022.
Akamatsu, F. E., W. R. Teodoro, A. M. Itezerote, et al. Photobiomodulation therapy increases collagen II after tendon experimental injury. Histol. Histopathol. 36(6):663–674, 2021.
Carrinho, P. M., A. C. M. Renno, P. Koeke, et al. Comparative study using 685-nm and 830-nm lasers in the tissue repair of tenotomized tendons in the mouse. Photomed. Laser Surg. 24(6):754–758, 2006.
Arruda, E. R. B., N. C. Rodrigues, C. Taciro, and N. A. Parizotto. Influence of different low-intensity laser therapy wavelengths for rat tendon regeneration following tenotomy. Revista Brasileira de Fisioterapia. 11(4):283–288, 2007.
Oliveira, F. S., C. E. Pinfildi, N. A. Parizoto, et al. Effect of low level laser therapy (830 nm) with different therapy regimes on the process of tissue repair in partial lesion calcaneous tendon. Lasers Surg. Med. 41(4):271–276, 2009.
Lima, J. G. M., G. R. Oliveira, M. Lima, A. S. Ferreira, and J. G. Silva. Influence of low intensity laser therapy (AsGa) on the cicatrization process of mechanic tendon injury in wistar rats. Laser Phys. 22(9):1445–1448, 2012.
Guerra, F. D. R., C. P. Vieira, M. Dos Santos de Almeida, et al. Pulsed LLLT improves tendon healing in rats: a biochemical, organizational, and functional evaluation. Lasers Med. Sci. 29(2):805–811, 2014.
de Jesus, J. F., D. D. Spadacci-Morena, N. D. Rabelo, et al. Low-level laser therapy on tissue repair of partially injured achilles tendon in rats. Photomed. Laser Surg. 32(6):345–350, 2014.
Lucke, L. D., F. O. Bortolazzo, V. Theodoro, et al. Low-level laser and adipose-derived stem cells altered remodelling genes expression and improved collagen reorganization during tendon repair. Cell Prolif.52(3):e12580, 2019.
Bastos, J. L. N., R. F. Z. Lizarelli, and N. A. Parizotto. Comparative study of laser and LED systems of low intensity applied to tendon healing. Laser Phys. 19(9):1925–1931, 2009.
Wood, V. T., C. E. Pinfildi, M. A. I. Neves, et al. Collagen changes and realignment induced by low-level laser therapy and low-intensity ultrasound in the calcaneal tendon. Lasers Surg. Med. 42(6):559–565, 2010.
Neves, M. A. I., C. E. Pinfildi, V. T. Wood, et al. Different power settings of LLLT on the repair of the calcaneal tendon. Photomed. Laser Surg. 29(10):663–668, 2011.
Locke, R. C., E. A. Lemmon, E. Dudzinski, et al. Photobiomodulation does not influence maturation and mildly improves functional healing of mouse achilles tendons. J. Orthop. Res. 38(8):1866–1875, 2020.
Elwakil, T. F. An in-vivo experimental evaluation of He-Ne laser photostimulation in healing Achilles tendons. Lasers Med. Sci. 22(1):53–59, 2007.
Iacopetti, I., A. Perazzi, V. Maniero, et al. Effect of MLS(®) laser therapy with different dose regimes for the treatment of experimentally induced tendinopathy in sheep: pilot study. Photomed. Laser Surg. 33(3):154–163, 2015.
Guerra, F. D. R., C. P. Vieira, M. S. Almeida, et al. LLLT improves tendon healing through increase of MMP activity and collagen synthesis. Lasers Med. Sci. 28(5):1281–1288, 2013.
de Carvalho, P. K., L. Silveira, D. Barbosa, et al. Analysis of experimental tendinitis in rats treated with laser and platelet-rich plasma therapies by Raman spectroscopy and histometry. Lasers Med. Sci. 31(1):19–26, 2016.
Marques, A. C. F., R. Albertini, A. J. Serra, et al. Photobiomodulation therapy on collagen type I and III, vascular endothelial growth factor, and metalloproteinase in experimentally induced tendinopathy in aged rats. Lasers Med. Sci. 31(9):1915–1923, 2016.
Barbosa, D., R. A. de Souza, W. R. G. de Carvalho, et al. Low-level laser therapy combined with platelet-rich plasma on the healing calcaneal tendon: a histological study in a rat model. Lasers Med. Sci. 28(6):1489–1494, 2013.
Salate, A. C. B., G. Barbosa, P. Gaspar, et al. Effect of In-Ga-Al-P diode laser irradiation on angiogenesis in partial ruptures of achilles tendon in rats. Photomed. Laser Surg. 23(5):470–475, 2005.
Ferreira, R., R. Silva, R. A. Folha, et al. Achilles tendon vascularization of proximal, medial, and distal portion before and after partial lesion in rats treated with phototherapy. Photomed. Laser Surg. 33(12):579–584, 2015.
de Jesus, J. F., D. D. Spadacci-Morena, N. D. D. Rabelo, et al. Low-level laser therapy (780 nm) on VEGF modulation at partially injured Achilles tendon. Photomed. Laser Surg. 34(8):331–335, 2016.
de Oliveira, A. R., F. S. da Silva, R. H. Bortolin, et al. Effect of photobiomodulation and exercise on early remodeling of the Achilles tendon in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. PLoS ONE.14(2):e0211643, 2019.
Marcos, R. L., E. C. P. Leal Junior, F. D. M. Messias, et al. Infrared (810 nm) low-level laser therapy in rat achilles tendinitis: a consistent alternative to drugs. Photochem. Photobiol. 87(6):1447–1452, 2011.
Pires, D., M. Xavier, T. Araújo, et al. Low-level laser therapy (LLLT; 780 nm) acts differently on mRNA expression of anti-and pro-inflammatory mediators in an experimental model of collagenase-induced tendinitis in rat. Lasers Med. Sci. 26(1):85–94, 2011.
Marcos, R. L., E. C. P. Leal-Junior, G. Arnold, et al. Low-level laser therapy in collagenase-induced Achilles tendinitis in rats: analyses of biochemical and biomechanical aspects. J. Orthop. Res. 30(12):1945–1951, 2012.
de Jesus, J. F., D. D. Spadacci-Morena, N. D. Dos Anjos Rabelo, et al. Low-level laser therapy in IL-1β, COX-2, and PGE2 modulation in partially injured Achilles tendon. Lasers Med. Sci. 30(1):153–158, 2015.
Torres-Silva, R., R. A. B. Lopes-Martins, J. M. Bjordal, et al. The low level laser therapy (LLLT) operating in 660 nm reduce gene expression of inflammatory mediators in the experimental model of collagenase-induced rat tendinitis. Lasers Med. Sci. 30(7):1985–1990, 2015.
Guerra, F. D., C. P. Vieira, L. P. Oliveira, et al. Low-level laser therapy modulates pro-inflammatory cytokines after partial tenotomy. Lasers Med. Sci. 31(4):759–766, 2016.
Laraia, E. M. S., I. S. Silva, D. M. Pereira, et al. Effect of low-level laser therapy (660 nm) on acute inflammation induced by tenotomy of Achilles tendon in rats. Photochem. Photobiol. 88(6):1546–1550, 2012.
Casalechi, H. L., E. C. P. Leal-Junior, M. Xavier, et al. Low-level laser therapy in experimental model of collagenase-induced tendinitis in rats: effects in acute and chronic inflammatory phases. Lasers Med. Sci. 28(3):989–995, 2013.
de Fernandes Jesus, J., D. D. Spadacci-Morena, N. D. D. A. Rabelo, et al. Photobiomodulation of matrix metalloproteinases in rat calcaneal tendons. Photobiomodul. Photomed. Laser Surg. 37(7):421–427, 2019.
Guerra, F. D., C. P. Vieira, P. P. Marques, L. P. Oliveira, and E. R. Pimentel. Low level laser therapy accelerates the extracellular matrix reorganization of inflamed tendon. Tissue Cell. 49(4):483–488, 2017.
Marcos, R. L., G. Arnold, V. Magnenet, et al. Biomechanical and biochemical protective effect of low-level laser therapy for achilles tendinitis. J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 29:272–285, 2014.
Demir, H., P. Menku, M. Kirnap, M. Calis, and I. Ikizceli. Comparison of the effects of laser, ultrasound, and combined laser plus ultrasound treatments in experimental tendon healing. Lasers Surg. Med. 35(1):84–89, 2004.
Shen, Y. W., and X. W. Shi. Low level laser for repair of collagen in the tendon of rats with enthesiopathy. Chin. J. Tissue Eng. Res. 16(28):5165–5169, 2012.
Aliodoust, M., M. Bayat, M. R. Jalili, et al. Evaluating the effect of low-level laser therapy on healing of tentomized Achilles tendon in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats by light microscopical and gene expression examinations. Lasers Med. Sci. 29(4):1495–1503, 2014.
Shi, X. W., L. J. Long, Y. W. Shen, and Z. P. Wang. Transforming growth factor-beta 1 expression in early enthesiopathy of Achilles tendon in rats after low-level laser therapy. Chin. J. Tissue Eng. Res. 18(24):3808–3813, 2014.
Ng, G. Y. F., and D. T. C. Fung. The combined treatment effects of therapeutic laser and exercise on tendon repair. Photomed. Laser Surg. 26(2):137–141, 2008.
Ng, G. Y. F., and P. Y. M. Chung. Effects of a therapeutic laser and passive stretching program for treating tendon overuse. Photomed. Laser Surg. 30(3):155–159, 2012.
Nouruzian, M., M. Alidoust, M. Bayat, M. Bayat, and M. Akbari. Effect of low-level laser therapy on healing of tenotomized Achilles tendon in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Lasers Med. Sci. 28(2):399–405, 2013.
de Souza, M. V., C. H. O. Silva, M. O. da Silva, et al. Achilles tendon of wistar rats treated with laser therapy and eccentric exercise. Revista Brasileira de Medicina Do Esporte. 21(5):332–337, 2015.
Joensen, J., N. R. Gjerdet, S. Hummelsund, et al. An experimental study of low-level laser therapy in rat Achilles tendon injury. Lasers Med. Sci. 27(1):103–111, 2012.
Bjordal, J. M., R. A. B. Lopes-Martins, V. V. Iversen, et al. A randomised, placebo controlled trial of low level laser therapy for activated Achilles tendinitis with microdialysis measurement of peritendinous prostaglandin E2 concentrations. Br. J. Sports Med. 40(1):76–80, 2006.
Sharma, R., A. Thukral, S. Kumar, and S. K. Bhargava. Effect of low level lasers in de Quervains tenosynovitis: prospective study with ultrasonographic assessment. Physiotherapy. 88(12):730–734, 2002.
Sharma, R., A. N. Aggarwal, S. Bhatt, S. Kumar, and S. K. Bhargava. Outcome of low level lasers versus ultrasonic therapy in de Quervain’s tenosynovitis. Indian J. Orthop. 49(5):542–548, 2015.
Corrigan, P., D. H. Cortes, and K. G. Silbernagel. Immediate effect of photobiomodulation therapy on Achilles tendon morphology and mechanical properties: an exploratory study. Transl. Sports Med. 2(4):164–172, 2019.
Zaki, Z., R. Ravanbod, M. Schmitz, and K. Abbasi. Comparison of low level and high power laser combined with kinesiology taping on shoulder function and musculoskeletal sonography parameters in subacromial impingement syndrome: a Randomized placebo-controlled trial. Physiother. Theory Pract. 38(13):2514–2525, 2021.
Magra, M., and N. Maffulli. Genetic aspects of tendinopathy. J. Sci. Med. Sport. 11(3):243–247, 2008.
Lopes Silva, R. S. D., D. R. Pessoa, R. R. Mariano, et al. Systematic Review of Photobiomodulation Therapy (PBMT) on the experimental calcaneal tendon injury in rats. Photochem. Photobiol. 96(5):981–997, 2020.
Schulze-Tanzil, G., O. Al-Sadi, E. Wiegand, et al. The role of pro-inflammatory and immunoregulatory cytokines in tendon healing and rupture: new insights. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports. 21(3):337–351, 2011.
Silveira, L. B., R. A. Prates, M. D. Novelli, et al. Investigation of mast cells in human gingiva following low-intensity laser irradiation. Photomed. Laser Surg. 26(4):315–321, 2008.
Sharma, P., and N. Maffulli. Tendon injury and tendinopathy: healing and repair. J. Bone Joint Surg. 87(1):187–202, 2005.
Smith, M. M., G. Sakurai, S. Smith, et al. Modulation of aggrecan and ADAMTS expression in ovine tendinopathy induced by altered strain. Arth. Rheumatism. 58(4):1055–1066, 2008.
Vilarta, R., and Bde C. Vidal. Anisotropic and biomechanical properties of tendons modified by exercise and denervation: aggregation and macromolecular order in collagen bundles. Matrix. 9(1):55–61, 1989.
Funding
This was not supported by any funding.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
There were no financial or competing conflicts of interest in relation to this work.
Additional information
Associate Editor Joel Stitzel oversaw the review of this article.
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
He, K., Zhou, X., Zheng, F. et al. Histological, Physiological and Biomechanical Effects of Low-Level Laser Therapy on Tendon Healing in Animals and Humans: A Systematic Review. Ann Biomed Eng 51, 2659–2707 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10439-023-03364-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10439-023-03364-1