Abstract
Under the climate warming, the ice avalanches (IAs) and glacier lake outburst floods (GLOFs) will continue or even intensify in the future. In order to find out the number, spatial distribution, and characteristics of hidden dangers of IA and GLOF-prone lakes on the Tibetan Plateau (TP), the first inventory is presented. (1) The study has identified and analyzed 581 IAs and 369 GLOFs on the TP. IAs and GLOFs are widely distributed in the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR), concentrating in the Yarlung Zangbo River basin and the Nyainqntanglha and Himalaya Mountain range. (2) Most of the IAs have an area of 0.1 ~ 1 km2. The IAs occur on vulnerable slopes ranging from 35 to 45°, with an elevation between 4500 and 5500 m and a north-friendly aspect. (3) Most of the GLOFs with a lake area of 0.1 ~ 0.3 km2 and a north-facing outburst direction are developed in an elevation range from 4500 to 5500 m. There are about half of the GLOF-prone lakes to be close to the front edge of the mother glaciers. (4) The front elevation of IAs changes regularly with the eastern Himalayan syntaxis region as the boundary. It generally increased from west to east on the west side, while a “V-shaped” trend first decreased and then increased, and decreased from south to north on the east side. (5) The IAs and GLOFs are mainly distributed in the southern and northwestern TP with “clustering” characters due to the topographical and climatic settings.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Additional files.
References
Che T, Jin R, Li X, Wu LZ (2004) Glacial lakes variation and the potentially dangerous glacial lakes in the Pumqu Basin of Tibet during the last two decades. J Glaciol Geocryol 26(4):397–502. https://doi.org/10.7522/j.issn.1000-0240.2004.0066. (in Chinese)
Chen CJ, Wang TF, Zhang Z, Liu ZQ (1999) Glacial lake outburst floods in Upper Nianchu River Basin. Tibet Journal of Cold Regions Engineering 13(4):199–212. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0887-381X(1999)13:4(199)
Cheng ZL, Zhu PY, Gong YW (2003) Typical debris flow triggered by ice-lake break. Mountain Research 21(6):78–82. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1008-2786.2003.06.013. (in Chinese)
Crandell DR (1968) Avalanche. In: Geomorphology. Encyclopedia of Earth Science. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-31060-6_20
Cui P, Ma DT, Chen NS, Jiang ZX (2003) The initiation, motion and mitigation of debris flow caused by glacial lake outburst. Quaternary Sciences 23(6):621–628. https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:1001-7410.2003.06.005. (in Chinese)
Ding MJ (2019) Grid data of annual temperature and annual precipitation on the Tibetan Plateau and its surrounding areas during 1998–2017. National Tibetan Plateau Data Center 10. https://doi.org/10.11888/Meteoro.tpdc.270239
Falátková K (2016) Temporal analysis of GLOFs in high-mountain regions of Asia and assessment of their causes. Auc Geographica 51:145–154. https://doi.org/10.14712/23361980.2016.12
Frank P (2019) Repeat glacier collapses and surges in the Amney Machen Mountain Range, Tibet, possibly triggered by a developing rock-slope instability. Remote Sens 11(6):708. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11060708
Geertsema M (2012) Initial observations of the 11 June 2012 rock/IA, Lituya Mountain, Alaska. The First Meeting of Cold Region Landslides Network, Harbin, China. 10:2–1 https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.2473.5682
Guo WQ, Liu SY, Xu JL, Wu LZ, Shangguan DH, Yao XJ, Wei JF, Bao WJ, Yu PC, Liu Q, Jiang ZL (2015) The second Chinese glacier inventory: data, methods and results. J Glaciol 61(226):357–372. https://doi.org/10.3189/2015JoG14J209
Han LM, Feng QQ (2018) Analysis of development characteristics and genetic mechanism of Zelonglong glacier debris flow in Nanjiabawa peak. Inner Mongolia Science Technology & Economy 22(4):58–59. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1007-6921.2018.04.029. (in Chinese)
Huang TJ (2017) Spatial-temporal changes of glacier thickness and lake level on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Beijing: Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth Chinese Academy Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences. (in Chinese). Available online at https://kns-cnki-net-443.webvpn.las.ac.cn/kcms2/article/abstract?v=3uoqIhG8C475KOm_zrgu4lQARvep2SAkueNJRSNVX-zc5TVHKmDNkkLBluNnWlw-OblMiXAgnsgVb1mLEvhGyMQrwlJyHxpw&uniplatform=NZKPT
Jerome VDW, Lewis AO, Paul T, Xu XW, François K, Robert CF, Patrick LB (2004) Giant, M8 Earthquake-triggered Ice Avalanches in the Eastern Kunlun Shan, Northern Tibet: characteristics, nature and dynamics. Geol Soc Am Bull 116(3):394–406. https://doi.org/10.1130/B25317.1
Jones DB, Harrisona S, Andersonb K, Selley HL, Wood JL, Betts RA (2018) The distribution and hydrological significance of rock glaciers in the Nepalese Himalaya. Glob Planet Chang 160:123–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2017.11.005
Kääb A, Leinss S, Gilbert A, Bühler Y, Gascoin Evans SG, Bartelt P, Berthier E, Brun F, Chao WA, Farinotti D, Gimbert F, Guo WQ, Huggel C, Kargel JS, Leonard GJ, Tian LD, Treichler D, Yao TD (2018) Massive collapse of two glaciers in Western Tibet in 2016 after surge-like instability. Nat Geosci 11(2):114–120. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-017-0039-7
Li DM, Qi MDJ, Sun CB, Zhang B (1995) Analysis of “5.26”, “5.27” and “5.28” glacier floods in Yalong River. Tibet Science and Technology 70(4):37–39. (in Chinese). Available online at https://kns-cnki-net-443.webvpn.las.ac.cn/kcms2/article/abstract?v=3uoqIhG8C44YLTlOAiTRKjkpgKvIT9NkGsvn6cq9Bo176iA9lLNGrAGYgcQAE2SBSvfQX_UGdbI5O2AT250SqLflMV2Bd6Rs&uniplatform=NZKPT
Li Z, Chen NS, Zhang JP, Hu GS, Wang YH, Yang Z (2014) Characteristics of the disaster chain of outburst and glacier lakes in the Boiqu River basin. Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology 41(4):143–148+152. https://doi.org/10.16030/j.cnki.issn.1000-3665.2014.04.020. (in Chinese)
Liu M (2020) Glacial lake outburst flood/debris flow disaster mechanism and hazards assessment in BhoteKoshi Basin. Chengdu: Institute of Mountain Hazarda and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences. https://doi.org/10.27525/d.cnki.gkchs.2020.000006
Liu W (2006) Preliminary study on debris flow induced by glacier lake outburst in Tibet. Hydrogeology & Engineering Geology 33(3):88–92. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1000-3665.2006.03.022. (in Chinese)
Liu SY, Guo WQ, Xu JL (2019) The second glacial catalogue data set of China (v1.0). National Cryosphere Desert Data Center (www.ncdc.ac.cn). https://doi.org/10.12072/ncdc.Westdc.db0006.2020
Liu CL, Tong LQ, Qi SW, Zhang SS, Zhang BW (2016) Remote sensing investigation and influence factor analysis of glacier lake outburst potential in the Himalayas. Remote Sensing for Land & Resources 28(3):110–115. https://doi.org/10.6046/gtzyyg.2016.03.18
Liu J, Yao XJ, Gao YP, Qi MM, Duan HY, Zhang DH (2019) Glacial lake variation and hazard assessment of glacial lakes outburst in the ParlungZangbo River Basin. J Lake Sci 31(4):1132–1143. https://doi.org/10.18307/2019.0420. (in Chinese)
Liu SY, Yao XJ, Guo WQ, Xu JL, Shangguan DH, Wei JF, Bao JW, Wu ZL (2015) The contemporary glaciers in China based on the Second Chinese Glacier Inventory. Acta Geographica Sinica 70(1):3–16. https://doi.org/10.11821/dlxb201501001. (in Chinese)
Liu JK, Zhang JJ, Gao B, Li YL, Li MY, Wujin DJ, Zhou LX (2019) An overview of glacial lake outburst flood in Tibet. China. J Glaciol Geocryol 41(6):1335–1347. https://doi.org/10.7522/j.issn.1000-0240.2019.0073. (in Chinese)
Lu AX, Deng XF, Zhao SX, Wang LH, Zhang YS (2005) Jiang X (2006) Cause of debris flow in Guxiang Valley in Bomi, Tibet Autonomous Region. J Glaciol Geocryol 28(6):956–960. https://doi.org/10.7522/j.issn.1000-0240.2006.0139. (in Chinese)
Lv RR, Tang BX, Zhu PY (1999) Debris flow and environment in Tibetan. Chengdu University of Science and Technology, Chengdu
Martha TR, Roy P, Jain N, Vinod Kumar K, Reddy PS, Nalini J, Sharma SVSP, Shukla AK, Durga Rao KHV, Narender B, Rao VN, Muralikrishnan S (2021) Rock avalanche induced flash flood on 07 February 2021 in Uttarakhand, India—a photogeological reconstruction of the event. Landslides 18:2881–2893. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-021-01691-9
Peng SZ (2020) 1-km monthly precipitation dataset for China (1901–2017). National Tibetan Plateau Data Center. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3185722
Peng SZ, Ding YX, Liu WZ, Li Z (2019) 1 km monthly temperature and precipitation dataset for China from 1901 to 2017. Earth System Science Data 11(4):1931–1946. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-11-1931-2019
Qu YP, Xiao J, Pan YW (2018) Preliminary analysis on formation conditions of glacier debris flow in Southeast Tibet—a case of glacial debris flow in Tianmo Gully. Water Resources and Hydropower Engineering 49(12):177–184. https://doi.org/10.13928/j.cnki.wrahe.2018.12.024. (in Chinese)
Schmid MO, Baral P, Gruber S, Shrestha T, Stumm D, Wester P (2015) Assessment of permafrost distribution maps in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region using rock glaciers mapped in Google Earth. Cryosphere 9(6):2089–2099. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-2089-2015
Shangguan DH, Liu SY, Ding YJ, Guo WQ, Xu BQ, Xu JL, Jiang ZL (2016) Characterizing the May 2015 Karayaylak glacier surge in the Eastern Pamir Plateau using remote sensing. J Glaciol 62(235):944–953. https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2016.81
Shi LN, Ji XF, Wang X (2017) Area extraction of Ali Ice Avalanche in Xizang using Sentinel-2A data. Inner Mongolia Coal Economy 2017(02):157–160. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1008-0155.2017.02.083. (in Chinese)
Shu YF, Wang GC, Zhuang SY, Liu W (2010) A weight determination method based on rough set for hazard assessment of typical moraine-dammed lake outburst in Himalayan region. Bulletin of Soil and Water Conservation 30(5):109–114. https://doi.org/10.13961/j.cnki.stbctb.2010.05.008. (in Chinese)
Sun H, Liu XD (2021) Impacts of dynamic and thermal forcing by the Tibetan Plateau on the precipitation distribution in the Asian arid and monsoon regions. Clim Dyn 56:2339–2358. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-020-05593-9
Sun MP, Liu SY, Yao XJ, Li L (2014) The cause and potential hazard of glacial lake outburst flood occurred on July 5, 2013 in Jiali County. Tibet. J Glaciol Geocryol 36(1):158–165. https://doi.org/10.7522/j.issn.1000-0240.2014.0020. (in Chinese)
Tang MG, Liu XX, Xu Q, Li G, Zhao HL, Zhu X, Li WL (2023) Experimental study on lce Avalanche Mechanism in Sedongpu Basin of Yarlung Zangbo River. Earth Science Frontiers 1–14. https://doi.org/10.13745/j.esf.sf.2023.2.64. (in Chinese)
Tong LQ, Pei LX, Tu JN, Guo ZC, Yu JK, Fan JH, Li DD (2020) A preliminary study of definition and classification of Ice Avalanche in the Tibetan Plateau region. Remote Sensing for Land and Resources 32(2):11–18. (in Chinese). https://www.gtzyyg.com/EN/10.6046/gtzyyg.2020.02.02
Tong LQ, Qi SW, An GY, Liu CL (2013) Remote sensing investigation of major geological disasters in the Himalayas. Science Press, Beijing (in Chinese)
Wang WC (2013) Variation of glacial lakes and assessment of GLOF hazards in the Boshula Mountain Range, Southeast of Tibetan Plateau. University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing (in Chinese)
Wang SJ, Qin DH, Xiao CD (2015) Moraine-dammed lake distribution and outburst flood risk in the Chinese Himalaya. J Glaciol 61(225):115–126. https://doi.org/10.3189/2015JoG14J097
Wu L, Li X (2004). Dataset of the first glacier inventory in China. Cold and Arid Regions Science Data Center: Lanzhou, China. https://doi.org/10.3972/westdc.011.2013.db
Wu GJ, Yao TD, Wang WC, Zhao HB, Yang Wei, Zhang GQ, Li SH, Yu WS, Lei YB, Hu WT (2019) Glacial hazards on Tibetan Plateau and surrounding alpines. Bull Chin Acad Sci 34(11):1285–1292. https://doi.org/10.16418/j.issn.1000-3045.2019.11.011
Xia YZ (2012) The research of distribution and formation for debris flow due to break of glacier lake in the Ranwu-Peilong section of the Sichuan-Tibet. Chongqing: Chongqing Jiaotong University. https://doi.org/10.7666/d.y2104718. (in Chinese)
Xue YG, Kong FM, Yang WM, Qiu DH, Su MX, Fu K, Ma XM (2020) Main unfavorable geological conditions and engineering geological problems along Sichuan-Tibet railway. Chin J Rock Mech Eng 39(3):445–468. https://doi.org/10.13722/j.cnki.jrme.2019.0737
Yang CD, Wang X, Wei JF, Liu SY (2018) A dataset of glacial lake inventory of West China in 2015. Chin Sci Data. https://doi.org/10.11922/csdata.2018.0038.zh. (in Chinese)
Yang CD, Wang X, Wei JF, Liu QH, Lu AX, Zhang Y, Tang ZG (2019) Chinese glacial lake inventory based on 3S technology method. J Geogr Sci 74: 544–556. https://doi.org/10.11821/dlxb201903011. (in Chinese)
Yang RM, Zhu LP, Wang YJ, Chu D (2012) Study on the variations of lake area & volume and their effect on the occurrence of outburst of MUDUIl glacier lake in Southeastern Tibet. Prog Geogr 31(9):1133–1140. https://doi.org/10.11820/dlkxjz.2012.09.003. (in Chinese)
Yao XJ, Liu SY, Sun MP, Zhang XJ (2014) Study on the glacial lake outburst flood events in Tibet since the 20th century. J Nat Resour 29(8):1377–1390. https://doi.org/10.11849/zrzyxb.2014.08.010. (in Chinese)
Yao XJ, Liu SY, Han L, Sun MP (2018) Definition and classification system of glacial lake for inventory and hazards study. J Geogr Sci 28:(2)193–205. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11442-018-1467-z. (in Chinese)
Zhang YL, Li BY, Liu LS, Zheng D (2021) Redetermine the region and boundaries of Tibetan Plateau. Geogr Res 40(6):1543–1553. https://doi.org/10.11821/dlyj020210138. (in Chinese)
Zhang YL, Li BY, Zheng D (2022) A discussion on the boundary and area of the Tibetan Plateau in China. Geogr Res 21(1):1–8. https://doi.org/10.11821/yj2002010001. (in Chinese)
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgement for the data providers: National Earth System Science Data Center, National Science & Technology Infrastructure of China (http://www.geodata.cn), National Cryosphere Desert Data Center (http://data.casnw.net), National Tibetan Plateau Data Center (http://data.tpdc.ac.cn), Tuxing Earth (http://www.tuxingis.com), United States Geological Survey (http://earthexplorer.usgs.gov), National Tibetan Plateau Data Center (http://data.tpdc.ac.cn), IACS and IPA Standing Group on Glacier and Permafrost Hazards in Mountains (http://www.gaphaz.org). The authors wish to thank the reviewers and the handling editor for their valuable comments, suggestions, and corrections for manuscript.
Funding
The authors acknowledge the financial support from the Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program (STEP) (Grant No. 2019QZKK0201), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 41941019), State Key Laboratory of Geohazard Prevention and Geoenvironment Protection Independent Research Project (Grant No. SKLGP2021Z005).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Minggao Tang and Qiang Xu contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by Minggao Tang, Lina Wang, and Huanle Zhao. The first draft and revision of the manuscript was written by Minggao Tang, Huanle Zhao, Lina Wang, Guangjian Wu, Jian Zhou, Guang Li, Wenjing Cai, and Xu Chen. And all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Tang, M., Xu, Q., Wang, L. et al. Hidden dangers of ice avalanches and glacier lake outburst floods on the Tibetan Plateau: identification, inventory, and distribution. Landslides 20, 2563–2581 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-023-02125-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-023-02125-4