Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Rock instabilities at the archaeological site of Dadan (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia)

  • Technical Note
  • Published:
Landslides Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper provides a summary of the investigations carried out for the preliminary assessment of potential geohazards affecting the archaeological site of Dadan in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The site is characterized by the presence of Cambro-Ordovician sandstone cliffs (Siq formation), which were quarried in ancient times (Dadan/Lihyan kingdom) for building materials. Both the steep quarried portion (Upper Siq) and the gentler underlying slope (Middle Siq) contain tombs of significant archaeological value. Landsliding and erosion are the main geomorphological processes affecting the site, posing risks to the safety of visitors, archaeological workers, and the preservation of the site. The primary processes affecting the rock cliffs, the underlying slope talus, and the tombs were identified using geological and geomechanical surveys, in addition to various geomatic acquisitions. The mechanical properties of the rock formations and discontinuity sets were identified through laboratory testing and in situ surveying, respectively. This information represents the first step in promoting further actions for risk mitigation and site management.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9

Coltop3D© semi-automatic discontinuity extraction: a ALS point clouds for the entire cliff and b the stereonet and relative rosette plots. In upper a, the colors correspond to the aspect of the full cliff face (dip angle and dip direction), expressed in terms of hue value and saturation (Metzger et al. 2009), while the lower one is only reporting the selected discontinuities, with colors also corresponding to dip angle and dip direction

Fig. 10

Coltop3D© semi-automatic discontinuity extraction, a combining the UAV-DP and ALS point clouds for the entire cliff and b the relative rosette and stereonet plots. In upper a are the two used data bases; in middle a, the colors correspond to the aspect of the full cliff face (dip angle and dip direction), expressed in terms of hue value and saturation (Metzger et al. 2009), while the lower one is only reporting the selected discontinuities, with colors also corresponding to dip angle and dip direction

Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13

References 

  • ASTM (2018) Standard test method for determination of pore volume and pore volume distribution of soil and rock by mercury intrusion porosimetry

  • Balek J, Blahůt J (2017) A critical evaluation of the use of an inexpensive camera mounted on a recreational unmanned aerial vehicle as a tool for landslide research. Landslides 14:1217–1224. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-016-0782-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Battulwar R, Zare-Naghadehi M, Emami E, Sattarvand J (2021) A state-of-the-art review of automated extraction of rock mass discontinuity characteristics using three-dimensional surface models. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 13:920–936. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2021.01.008

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beni T, Gigli G, Lombardi L et al (2022) Route stability index (RSI): an index for the assessment of rockfall-related hazards in rock slopes equipped for sport climbing. Geoheritage 14:80. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-022-00715-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boldini D, Guido GL, Margottini C, Spizzichino D (2018) Stability analysis of a large-volume block in the historical rock-cut city of Vardzia (Georgia). Rock Mech Rock Eng 51:341–349. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-017-1299-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cabrelles M, Galcerá S, Navarro S et al (2009) Integration of 3D laser scanning, photogrammetry and thermography to record architectural monuments. In: Proceedings of the 22nd International CIPA Symposium. Kyoto, Japan 11–15

  • Canuti P, Margottini C, Fanti R, Bromhead E (2009) Cultural heritage and landslides: research for risk prevention and conservation. In: Sassa K, Canuti P, (eds.) Landslides: disaster risk reduction. Springer Verlag, ISBN: 978–3–540–69966–8

  • CloudCompare (2022) CloudCompare. https://www.danielgm.net/cc/. Accessed 27 Apr 2022

  • Coltop3D (2022) https://www.terranum.ch/produits/coltop3d/. Accessed 15 Oct 2022

  • ESRI Inc (2019) ArcMap 10.6 datasheet. https://www.esri.com/content/dam/esrisites/en-us/media/pdf/product/desktop/ArcGIS-10.6-Desktop-ArcMap-Functionality-Matrix.pdf

  • FLIR (2009a) FLIR ThermaCAM SC620 technical specifications. www.flir.com/cs/emea/en/view/?id=41965

  • FLIR (2009b) FLIR tools + datasheet. https://www.infraredcamerawarehouse.com/content/FLIR%20Datasheets/FLIR%20ToolsPlus%20Datasheet.pdf

  • Flora A (2022) Taking care of heritage, a challenge for geotechnical engineers. In: Proc. Geotechnical engineering for the preservation of monuments and historic sites III. Naples, Italy 19–54

  • Frodella W, Gigli G, Morelli S et al (2017) Landslide mapping and characterization through infrared thermography (IRT): suggestions for a methodological approach from some case studies. Remote Sensing 9(12):1281

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frodella W, Elashvili M, Spizzichino D et al (2021) Applying close range non-destructive techniques for the detection of conservation problems in rock-carved cultural heritage sites. Remote Sens 13:1040. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13051040

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gallego JI, Margottini C, Spizzichino D et al (2022) Geomorphological processes and rock slope instabilities affecting the AlUla archaeological region. In: Geotechnical engineering for the preservation of monuments and historic sites III, 1st edn. CRC Press, London 456–466

  • Gigli G, Frodella W, Garfagnoli F et al (2014) 3-D geomechanical rock mass characterization for the evaluation of rockslide susceptibility scenarios. Landslides 11:131–140. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-013-0424-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gracchi T, Rossi G, Tacconi Stefanelli C et al (2021) Tracking the evolution of riverbed morphology on the basis of UAV photogrammetry. Remote Sens 13:829. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13040829

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guerin A, Jaboyedoff M, Collins BD et al (2019) Detection of rock bridges by infrared thermal imaging and modeling. Sci Rep 9:13138. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-49336-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hidalgo-Chacón Díez M del C (2014) Place names in the Dadanitic inscriptions of al-ʿUḏayb. Adumātu 15–30

  • Husseini MI (1990) The Cambro-Ordovician Arabian and adjoining plates: a glacio-eustatic model. J Pet Geol 13:267–288. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-5457.1990.tb00847.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ISRM (1978a) International society for rock mechanics commission on standardization of laboratory and field tests. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech Abstr 15:319–368. https://doi.org/10.1016/0148-9062(78)91472-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ISRM (1978b) Suggested methods for determining sound velocity. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech Abstr 15:53–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/0148-9062(78)91678-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ISRM (1983) Suggested methods for determining the strength of rock materials in triaxial compression: revised version. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech Abstr 20:285–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/0148-9062(83)90598-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ISRM (1978c) Suggested methods for determining tensile strength of rock materials. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech Abstr 15:99–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/0148-9062(78)90003-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ISRM (1977) Suggested methods for determining water content, porosity, density, absorption and related properties and swelling. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech Abstr 16:141–156

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaboyedoff M, Baillifard F, Couture R, Locat J, Locat P, Rouiller JD (2004) New insight of geomorphology and landslide prone area detection using DEM. In: 9th International Symposium on Landslides, W.A. Lacerda, M. Ehrlich, A.B. Fontoura and A. Sayo (eds.), Balkema 199–205

  • Margottini C (2015) Engineering geology in shaping and preserving the historic urban landscapes and cultural heritage: achievements in UNESCO world heritage sites. In: Lollino G, Giordan D, Marunteanu C et al (eds) Engineering geology for society and territory -, vol 8. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 1–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Margottini C, Gigli G, Ruther H, Spizzichino D (2016) Advances in geotechnical investigations and monitoring in rupestrian settlements inscribed in the UNESCO’s world heritage list. Procedia Earth Planet Sci 16:35–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeps.2016.10.005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Margottini C, Spizzichino D (2014) How geology shapes human settlements. In Bandarin F., van Oers R. (eds.) Reconnecting the city. The historic urban landscape approach and the future of urban heritage. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell

  • Margottini C, Spizzichino D (2017) Historical accesses to UNESCO cultural heritages: engineering geology for the sustainable conservation of Petra Siq. Innov Infrastruct Solut 2:25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41062-017-0074-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Margottini C, Spizzichino D (2022) Weak rocks in the Mediterranean region and surroundings: threats and mitigation strategies for selected rock-cut heritage sites. Eng Geol 297:106511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2021.106511

  • Marszałek M, Alexandrowicz Z, Rzepa G (2014) Composition of weathering crusts on sandstones from natural outcrops and architectonic elements in an urban environment. Environ Sci Pollut Res 21:14023–14036. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3312-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martinez F, Cochran JR (1988) Structure and tectonics of the northern Red Sea: catching a continental margin between rifting and drifting. Tectonophysics 150:1–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(88)90293-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menegoni N, Giordan D, Perotti C, Tannant DD (2019) Detection and geometric characterization of rock mass discontinuities using a 3D high-resolution digital outcrop model generated from RPAS imagery – Ormea rock slope, Italy. Eng Geol 252:145–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2019.02.028

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Metzger R, Jaboyedoff M, Oppikofer T (2009) Coltop3D: a new software for structural analysis with high resolution 3D point clouds and DEM. In: 2009 CSPG CSEG CWLS Convention. Calgary, Alberta, Canada

  • Obert L, Windes SL, Duvall WI (1946) Standardized tests for determining the physical properties of mines rocks. US Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations, No:3891

  • Pellicani R, Argentiero I, Manzari P et al (2019) UAV and airborne LiDAR data for interpreting kinematic evolution of landslide movements: the case study of the Montescaglioso landslide (Southern Italy). Geosciences 9:248. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9060248

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pires F, Bilotta E, Flora A, Lourenço PB (2021) Assessment of excavated tunnels stability in the Maya archeological area of Copán. Honduras Int Journal of Architectural Heritage 17(3):431–449. https://doi.org/10.1080/15583058.2021.1931730

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pix4D (2022) Pix4D. https://www.pix4d.com/product/pix4dmapper-photogrammetry-software. Accessed 10 Jun 2022

  • Polimeni B, Bixio R, Galeazzi C, Germani C, Parise M, Saj S, Sammarco M (2019) Creating a map of the underground heritage in the Mediterranean area: a visual representation for a comprehensive research. In: Amoruso, G., Salerno, R. (Eds.) Cultural landscape in practice. Conservation vs. Emergencies. Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering. Springer Verlag

  • Remondino F, Campana S (eds) (2014) 3D recording and modelling in archaeology and cultural heritage: theory and best practices. Archaeopress, Oxford, England

    Google Scholar 

  • Ribacchi R, Rotonda T, Graziani A et al (2018) Meccanica delle Rocce. Teoria e Applicazioni nell’Ingegneria. Edizioni Efesto, Italia

  • Rohmer J, Alsuhaibani A, Lesguer F et al (2020) The Dadan Archaeological Project. Report on the first field season (2020), edited by J. Rohmer, A. Alsuhaibani and F. Lesguer. Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS), Agence française pour le développement d’AlUla (Afalula), Royal Commission for AlUla (RCU)

  • Rohmer J, Charloux G (2015) From Liḥyān to the Nabataeans: dating the end of the Iron Age in north-west Arabia. Proc Semin Arab Stud 45:297–319

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruedrich J, Bartelsen T, Dohrmann R, Siegesmund S (2011) Moisture expansion as a deterioration factor for sandstone used in buildings. Environ Earth Sci 63:1545–1564. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-010-0767-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salvini R, Mastrorocco G, Seddaiu M et al (2017) The use of an unmanned aerial vehicle for fracture mapping within a marble quarry (Carrara, Italy): photogrammetry and discrete fracture network modelling. Geomat Nat Hazards Risk 8:34–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/19475705.2016.1199053

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sampietro-Vattuone MM, Peña-Monné JL (2021) Application of 2D/3D models and alteration mapping for detecting deterioration processes in rock art heritage (Cerro Colorado, Argentina): a methodological proposal. J Cult Herit 51:157–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2021.08.006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spizzichino D, Margottini C, Chiessi V, Boldini D (2016) Assessment of the stability conditions of a large-volume sandstone block in the northern sector of the Siq of Petra. In: Landslides and engineered slopes. Experience, theory and practice: Proceedings of the 12th International Symposium on Landslides (Napoli, Italy, 12–19 June 2016). CRC Press 1851–1858

  • Sturzenegger M, Stead D (2009) Close-range terrestrial digital photogrammetry and terrestrial laser scanning for discontinuity characterization on rock cuts. Eng Geol 106:163–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2009.03.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Teza G, Marcato G, Pasuto A, Galgaro A (2015) Integration of laser scanning and thermal imaging in monitoring optimization and assessment of rockfall hazard: a case history in the Carnic Alps (Northeastern Italy). Nat Hazards 76:1535–1549. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-014-1545-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Themistocleous K, Cuca B, Agapiou A et al (2016) The protection of cultural heritage sites from geo-hazards: the PROTHEGO project. In: Ioannides M, Fink E, Moropoulou A, et al. (eds) Digital heritage. Progress in cultural heritage: documentation, preservation, and protection. Springer International Publishing, Cham 91–98

  • Tunusluoglu MC, Zorlu K (2009) Rockfall hazard assessment in a cultural and natural heritage (Ortahisar Castle, Cappadocia, Turkey). Environ Geol 56:963–972. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-008-1198-z

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tuvia W, Sneh A (2002) Sedimentology and paleogeography of the Late Precambrian-Early Cambrian arkosic and conglomeratic facies in the northern margins of the Arabo-Nubian Shield. Geol Surv Isr Bull 87.

  • Vision (2022) Vision 2030. In: Vis. 2030. https://www.vision2030.gov.sa

  • Wangler TP, Stratulat A, Duffus P et al (2011) Flaw propagation and buckling in clay-bearing sandstones. Environ Earth Sci 63:1565–1572. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-010-0732-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weidner L, Walton G (2021) Monitoring the effects of slope hazard mitigation and weather on rockfall along a Colorado highway using terrestrial laser scanning. Remote Sensing 13:4584. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13224584

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weidner L, Walton G, Krajnovich A (2021) Classifying rock slope materials in photogrammetric point clouds using robust color and geometric features. ISPRS J Photogramm Remote Sens 176:15–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2021.04.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss T, Siegesmund S, Kirchner D, Sippel J (2004) Insolation weathering and hygric dilatation: two competitive factors in stone degradation. Environ Geol 46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-004-1041-0

  • Whabi AM (2014) Sedimentological and stratigraphic studies of the Cambro-Ordovician succession in northwest Saudi Arabia. Master thesis, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran – 31261, Saudi Arabia

Download references

Acknowledgements

The reported activities were carried out thanks to the collaboration between the UNESCO Chair on Prevention and Sustainable Management of Geo-Hydrological Hazards of the University of Florence, the Italian Institute for Environmental Protection and Research (ISPRA), the Sapienza University of Rome, and the University of Milano Bicocca, coordinated by the Royal Commission for AlUla (RCU) and the French Agency for AlUla Development (AFALULA), in the framework of the International Programme on Landslides IPL-259 project “Landslide Risk assessment in AlUla Archaeological sites–Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.” ALS data were provided by the Royal Commission for AlUla. We deeply thank Factum Foundation for making available the TLS survey and Drone photos. LAGIRN laboratory of the University of Bologna, in the person of Dr. Fausto Peddis and Dr. Barbara Ravaglia, is highly acknowledged for the activity of laboratory testing. Jhaed Kamuzaman Abul provided also his help in this stage of the research.

Funding

The field work was funded by the French Agency for AlUla Development (AFALULA), on behalf of the Royal Commission for AlUla (RCU).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Earth Sciences, University of Florence, Via G. La Pira 4, 50121, Florence, Italy

    Tommaso Beni & William Frodella

  2. Division of Florence, National Institute for Nuclear Physics INFN, Via Bruno Rossi 1, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy

    Tommaso Beni

  3. Department of Chemical Engineering Materials Environment, Sapienza University of Rome, Via Eudossiana 18, 00184, Rome, Italy

    Daniela Boldini

  4. Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Milan Bicocca, Piazza Della Scienza 4, 20126, Milan, Italy

    Giovanni Battista Crosta

  5. UNESCO Chair On the Prevention and Sustainable Management of Geo-Hydrological Hazards, University of Florence, Largo Fermi 2, 50125, Florence, Italy

    William Frodella, Claudio Margottini & Daniele Spizzichino

  6. RCU–Royal Commission for AlUla,, AlUla, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

    José Ignacio Gallego

  7. Department of Civil, Chemical Environmental and Materials Engineering, University of Bologna, Via Terracini 28, 40131, Bologna, Italy

    Edoardo Lusini

  8. Depart. for Geological Survey of Italy, ISPRA, Via Vitaliano Brancati 48, 00144, Rome, Italy

    Daniele Spizzichino

Authors
  1. Tommaso Beni
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Daniela Boldini
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Giovanni Battista Crosta
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. William Frodella
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. José Ignacio Gallego
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Edoardo Lusini
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Claudio Margottini
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Daniele Spizzichino
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Conceptualization and methodology: Daniela Boldini, Giovanni Battista Crosta, Claudio Margottini, and Daniele Spizzichino; formal analysis and investigation: Tommaso Beni, Daniela Boldini, Giovanni Battista Crosta, William Frodella, José Ignacio Gallego, Edoardo Lusini, Claudio Margottini, and Daniele Spizzichino; writing original draft preparation: Tommaso Beni, Daniela Boldini, Giovanni Battista Crosta, William Frodella, José Ignacio Gallego, Edoardo Lusini, Claudio Margottini, and Daniele Spizzichino; writing review and editing: Tommaso Beni, Daniela Boldini, Giovanni Battista Crosta, William Frodella, José Ignacio Gallego, Edoardo Lusini, Claudio Margottini, and Daniele Spizzichino; Supervision: José Ignacio Gallego, Claudio Margottini, and Daniele Spizzichino.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Daniela Boldini.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Appendices

Appendix 1

Fig. 14
figure 14

The seven rock samples collected in the archaeological site of Dadan during 2020 and 2021 campaigns

Full size image
Fig. 15
figure 15

Core and disk specimens prepared from the Upper Siq unit (Su) samples for the mechanical tests: a from 2020 campaign and b 2021 relatively. See Table 5 for sample dimensions

Full size image
Table 5 Geometrical characteristics of the specimens used for the mechanical tests. In the Test column, the following acronyms were used: VP P wave velocities, VP_SAT P wave velocities in saturated conditions, UCS uniaxial compressive test, UCS_SAT uniaxial compressive test in saturated conditions, BRA indirect tensile test, TRIAX triaxial compressive test. In the Note column, the following acronyms were used: DL double lithology, EL eroded level, CS chopped specimen
Full size table

Appendix 2

Table 6 Data obtained from the geomechanical scanlines
Full size table

Appendix 3

Table 7 Geometrical features of the unstable blocks identified in the Lion Tombs cliff sector of Dadan (Fig. 13a). All the data were extracted from the UAV-DP obtained point cloud and were confirmed by the in situ survey and the comparison with respect to the taken terrestrial/aerial photos
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Beni, T., Boldini, D., Crosta, G.B. et al. Rock instabilities at the archaeological site of Dadan (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia). Landslides 20, 2455–2478 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-023-02122-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-023-02122-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation