Introduction

For decades, researchers and practitioners have attempted to uncover factors facilitating better academic engagement in school (Christenson et al., 2012; Finn & Voelkl, 1993; Geng et al., 2023; Perkmann et al., 2021; Skinner & Belmont, 1993). Academic engagement is a multidimensional construct incorporating students’ behaviors, emotions, and cognitions that underpin learning and well-being in the school context (Martins et al., 2022). The focus on academic engagement is substantiated by the myriad of positive child outcomes linked with the children’s academic engagement, such as lower risk of school drop-out and truancy (Janosz et al., 2008; Quin, 2017; Teuscher & Makarova, 2018), greater academic achievement (Chase et al., 2014; Roorda et al., 2017), less risky behaviors (Griffiths et al., 2012; Henry et al., 2012), and greater social-emotional competencies (Furlong et al., 2014; Murray & Greenberg, 2001; Pietarinen et al., 2014; Santos et al., 2023).

Studies aimed at understanding academic engagement have shown that children’s social skills and subsequent relationships in the classroom, such as the quality of the teacher–child relationships, are strongly associated with children’s academic engagement (Furrer et al., 2012; Teuscher & Makarova, 2018; Vollet & Kindermann, 2020; Wang & Eccles, 2012). For instance, elementary school children who were rated by their peers to have better social skills and less aggression were found to have a greater engagement with school (Kwon et al., 2014). Similarly, studies of elementary school and adolescent learners found a link between peer emotional support and adolescents’ participation, motivation, and enjoyment at school (Wang & Eccles, 2012; Wentzel, 2003). In terms of teacher-student relationships, children who feel supported, respected, and cared for by their teachers have greater relationships with their peers (Hendrickx et al., 2016) and academic self-esteem and motivation (Furrer et al., 2012; Roeser et al., 1998).

Although there is extensive research on the influence of social behaviors and teacher–child relationships on academic engagement, less is known about the individual socio-cognitive patterns that precede relationships and behaviors. More specifically, the current study examines the role of social information processing (SIP) in this context (see also Arbel et al., 2021; Denham et al., 2013; Ziv, 2013). Children’s SIP patterns have a central role in how they interact with others (Dodge et al., 1986; Dodge & Crick, 1990), with competent SIP patterns leading to positive social interactions (Ziv, 2013) and aggressive SIP patterns leading to social maladjustment (Calvete & Orue, 2012; Dodge, 2006; Ziv & Arbel, 2021). Thus, it is likely that young children’s SIP impacts their academic engagement through its influence on their social adjustment or maladjustment in the classroom.

Accordingly, in the present study, we focused on the potential indirect effects of kindergartners’ SIP patterns on their academic engagement, involving both their academic self-perceptions and their attitudes toward learning through children’s social behaviors in class (prosocial and problem behaviors) and, in turn, the teacher–child relationship quality (relational closeness/conflict). As far as we know, this study is the first to examine a dual-pathway model that includes different social aspects of children, including cognitive, behavioral, and relational factors, as the potential precursors of kindergarteners’ lower and higher academic engagement levels. That is, one comprehensive model which includes both a pathway from children’s competent SIP patterns to higher levels of academic engagement and from children’s aggressive SIP patterns to lower levels of academic engagement.

Academic engagement in kindergarten: importance and definition

As previously indicated, kindergarten academic engagement is an integral part of children’s school readiness, later academic success, and psychosocial adjustment to the school environment. Indeed, academic engagement in kindergarten has been linked to a myriad of positive academic and social-emotional outcomes including behavioral competence (McLeod et al., 2017, 2019), positive social skills (Bulotsky-Shearer et al., 2011; Escalón & Greenfield, 2009; Fantuzzo et al., 2005), better academic achievement (Estévez et al., 2021; Quin, 2017; Roorda et al., 2017; Sanders et al., 2018), and successfully transitioning to formal schooling (Li-Grining et al., 2010).

Academic engagement is a multidimensional construct that incorporates three major aspects: cognitive (e.g., academic self-perceptions), affective (e.g., feelings about school activities), and behavioral (e.g., children’s learning behaviors) (Fredricks et al., 2004). Still, it is often difficult to empirically distinguish cognitions and motivations from the associated behaviors and feelings at the preschool and kindergarten age (Bryce et al., 2018). Further, due to the difficulties of self-report and direct measures for kindergarten-aged children, studies of kindergarten academic engagement often rely on teacher-report (Bryce et al., 2018). The current study includes both child and teacher reports of academic engagement, incorporating academic self-perceptions and attitudes toward learning, as well as a dual-pathway model of the psychosocial factors predicting academic engagement that demonstrates how higher or lower levels of academic engagement aspects in the kindergarten class may be explained by children’s differences in social cognition and important child behavioral and relational factors in class.

Children’s social information processing (SIP) and their social behavior

Social information processing (SIP; Crick & Dodge, 1994) refers to the individual cognitive processes behind social interactions, specifically, the stepwise and circular mental process by which people engage in social interactions, through encoding social cues, interpreting these cues, and making social decisions. The process is both circular and bidirectional, in that each step affects and is affected by old and new social experiences (Ziv & Elizarov, 2019). SIP patterns are typically categorized as competent or aggressive, indicating the schema for which children interpret social cues and make social decisions either assumes prosocial tendencies or aggressive tendencies.

There is longstanding empirical evidence of the connection between kindergarten children’s SIP and their social skills and subsequent peer relationships (Mayeux & Cillessen, 2003; Ziv, 2013). Competent SIP patterns are related to better peer relationships, including social competence (Pettit et al., 1988), more prosocial behavior as identified by teachers and peers (Nelson & Crick, 1999), and greater popularity among peers (Mayeux & Cillessen, 2003). On the other hand, aggressive SIP patterns are related to maladaptive behaviors in school, such as hostile and aggressive behavior (Dodge et al., 2003; Orobio de Castro, et al., 2002; Ziv, 2012, and externalizing behaviors (Lansford et al., 2006).

In the preschool years, the final two steps of SIP (response evaluation and decision-making, or RED) are found to be the most predictive of social behaviors (Fontaine & Dodge, 2006; Schultz et al., 2010; Ziv, 2012; Ziv & Arbel, 2021) and are therefore utilized in the current study. Importantly, children’s social competence, including their social information processing patterns, is instrumental in the development of their agency for learning (Boylan et al., 2018). The current research extends existing empirical evidence of the associations between competent and aggressive SIP patterns, and prosocial and problem behaviors in class, respectively. Moreover, we investigate the role of SIP patterns in children’s academic engagement via children’s social behaviors and subsequently the quality of the teacher–child relationships.

Social behavior, teacher–child relationships, and children’s academic engagement

Teacher–child relationships are paramount to children’s academic success and are dependent on various child characteristics and, in turn, also influence various children’s academic outcomes. Of the child characteristics influencing teacher–child relationships, there is extensive research linking children’s behavior in class to teacher–child relationships. Teachers report that children who exhibit more self-control (e.g., less externalizing behaviors) and cooperation (e.g., more prosocial behaviors) are more successful in their classrooms (Lane et al., 2004). Conversely, children’s aggressive and externalized behaviors in class frequently lead to a negative reaction from teachers including negative feelings (Coplan et al., 2015; Nurmi et al., 2018), stress, and a lower sense of joy (Freidman-Krauss et al., 2014; Shewark et al., 2018). In accordance, strong social skills, and more positive social interactions, were found to predict teacher–child closeness (Coulombe & Yates, 2018; Yao & Wong, 2021), whereas problem behaviors, such as internalizing and externalizing behaviors, were found to predict teacher–child conflict (Demirkaya & Bakkaloglu, 2015; Shi & Ettekal, 2021).

As mentioned above, the teacher–child relationship quality is associated also with other class outcomes. Specifically, close teacher–child relationships, characterized by positive affect and more harmonious interactions, are positively associated with specific components of engagement such as academic self-esteem (Roeser et al., 1998), motivation (Furrer et al., 2012), emotional engagement, and cognitive engagement (Wang & Eccles, 2012). In contrast, when teacher–child relationships are conflictual and characterized by high discord and negative affect, these relationships become a stressor for young children (Pianta, 2001), and engaging in school becomes more difficult. For instance, Jerome and colleagues (2009) showed that conflictual teacher–child relationships in kindergarten may have long-term influences on children’s academic outcomes.

In alignment with this, children’s behaviors in the classroom play a crucial role not only in shaping the quality of the teacher–child relationship but also in significantly influencing academic outcomes for the children. Specifically, children exhibiting less competent and appropriate social behaviors in the classroom not only face an increased likelihood of having conflictual relationships with their teacher but may also achieve less favorable academic results due to behaviors hindering their engagement in adaptive learning processes (see McCabe & Altamura, 2011; Searle et al., 2013). In contrast, children demonstrating more competent prosocial behaviors in the classroom attain more favorable academic results (Caprara et al., 2000; Collie et al., 2018; Guo et al., 2018), including kindergarten academic engagement (e.g., Nix et al., 2013).

Current study

The purpose of the current investigation is to explore the indirect influence of kindergarten children’s social information processing on academic engagement through the sequential mediation of children’s social behavior and, in turn, their relationships with their teachers. Expanding upon the previously highlighted significance of social behaviors and teacher–child relationships in shaping academic engagement, our study addresses a notable gap by examining the individual socio-cognitive patterns that precede these influential factors.

Specifically, we hypothesize a dual-pathway model that elucidates the intricate relationships within this sequential mediation process. First, we propose that children’s competent response evaluation and decision-making (RED) will be positively related to their academic engagement. This positive relationship is anticipated to be mediated through children’s prosocial behaviors in class and teacher–child relational closeness. Second, we posit that children’s aggressive RED will be negatively related to their academic engagement. This negative relationship is expected to be mediated through children’s problem behaviors in class and teacher–child relational conflict (see the conceptualized model in Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Conceptional diagram of the hypothesized dual-pathway model linking SIP patterns with kindergarteners’ academic engagement via their social-relational outcomes in class (social behavior and teacher–child relationships’ quality)

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To ensure a robust examination and mitigate common methods and reporter bias, our study employs different assessment methods completed by various agents to assess the study’s main variables: SIP patterns are measured via direct child interview, children’s social behavior and teacher–child relationship are measured through teacher ratings, and child academic engagement is measured through both a teacher- and child-report.

Method

Participants and procedures

Study participants included 300 kindergarten children (151 girls; 149 boys; Mage = 68.76 months, SD = 6.34 months). Based on their parents’ self-report, 68% of the children came from households where the mother obtained a BA degree or higher. Parents also ranked their household income on a scale ranging from 1 to 5, with the midpoint of 3 representing the average monthly income in Israel (approximately $4000 according to the 2014 census). The mean household income score in this study was 3.51 (SD = 1.27), indicating that the mean family income in this sample was higher than the Israeli average.

Data was collected between 2017 and 2019. First, consent was obtained from kindergarten supervisors and teachers for conducting the study in the kindergarten classes under their supervision. Later, we informed the parents about the research via fliers, and upon receiving consent, the research team visited the kindergarten classes and conducted one-on-one interviews with participating children which included SIP and academic engagement assessments. During these visits, teachers completed questionnaires regarding the quality of their relationship with the child, the child’s behavior in class, and the child’s attitude toward learning. Complete study protocol approval was obtained from the University’s IRB and from the Ministry of Education chief scientist office in Israel (approval # 9312).

Measures

Response evaluation and decision (RED)

Children’s competent and aggressive RED patterns were examined using the social information processing interview-preschool version (SIPI-P; Ziv & Sorongon, 2011). This 20-min semi-structured interview includes four short stories with pictures of bears to represent the stories’ characters. The stories describe challenging social scenarios in which the intent of the other(s) in the peer group is illustrated as ambiguous or non-hostile. There are similar versions for boys and girls. The four stories include (1) a non-hostile rejection story, where the protagonist asks to join in play with two friends from his or her peer group but they say that the teacher only allows two children to play in this area; (2) an ambiguous rejection story, where the protagonist asks to join a game but the others are not answering; (3) a non-hostile provocation story, where a child accidentally spills the protagonist’s water glass; (4) an ambiguous provocation story, where the protagonist watches TV and another child comes, takes the remote control, and changes the channel. While the children are listening to the stories, the interviewer stops the storytelling at fixed points and asks them questions (open- and close-ended) that allow for the assessment of the hypothesized information processing steps. A complete description of the SIPI-P interview questions and scores can be found in Ziv and Sorongon (2011). In the current study, we generated two scores for each of the two described patterns of response evaluation and decision process (in short—RED; Fontaine et al., 2009)—competent and aggressive. Scores for the competent and aggressive RED were based on the child’s responses in two parts during the interview. The first part relates to the response decision or generation process and includes an open question: “What would you do if this had happened to you?” The range score for each of the two patterns is 0–4, with higher scores representing higher levels of aggressive/competent response generation.

The second part relates to the response evaluation process and includes three questions asked after showing the child the competent response (for the competent RED; e.g., the child is shown that the protagonist is willing to wait for his or her turn when the other children do not allow him to join them and reply that the game is only for two players) or the aggressive response (for the aggressive RED; e.g., the child is shown that the protagonist spoils the other children’s game when they do not allow him to join them and reply that the game is only for two players): “was this a good thing or a bad thing to do?” “if you had done this, would the other children love you?” “if you had done this, would the other children let you play?” The possible range for both scores is 0–12. Thus, the total aggressive/competent RED score is 0–16.

Social behavior

Children’s social behaviors were assessed using the teacher-report version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; Goodman, 1997) which includes five subscales—prosocial behavior, conduct problems, hyperactivity, emotional problems, and peer problems with the four latter sub-scales could be combined into a total “problem behavior” scores—which we did in the current study. Each of the 25 items (5 for prosocial and 20 for problem behavior) is rated on a 3-point scale: 0 “not true,” 1 “somewhat true,” and 2 “certainly true” for a total possible score of 0–10 for the prosocial scale and 0–40 for the problem behavior scale. This widely used measure has already been translated into Hebrew (e.g., Knafo-Noam et al., 2015). The prosocial and problem behavior subscales were previously found to have satisfactory internal consistency (α = 0.79–0.86 for prosocial behavior; α = 0.82–0.91 for problem behavior; see Blair et al., 2018; Bourdon et al., 2005; Huber et al., 2019; Lonigro et al., 2018; Owens et al., 2016). The internal consistencies in our study were also acceptable: α = 0.78 for prosocial behavior; α = 0.82 for problem behavior.

Teacher–child relationships

Teacher–child relational closeness and conflict were examined using the Student–Teacher Relationship Scale (STRS; Pianta & Steinberg, 1992). The closeness subscale includes 11 items (e.g., “I share an affectionate, warm relationship with this child”; “If upset, this child will seek comfort from me”); the conflict subscale includes 12 items (e.g., “This child and I always seem to be struggling with each other”; “Dealing with this child drains my energy”). These items which are rated by teachers are on a 5-point scale, ranging from 1 “does not apply” to 5 “definitely applies.” A Hebrew translation of this commonly used measure already exists (e.g., Granot, 2014). The internal consistencies of the closeness and conflict subscales had been found to be very good (α = 0.79–0.91 for teacher–child relational closeness; α = 0.83–0.94 for teacher–child relational conflict; see Acar et al., 2018; McCormick & O'Connor, 2015; Varghese et al., 2019). The internal consistencies in our study were also acceptable: α = 0.85 for teacher–child relational closeness; α = 0.82 for teacher–child relational conflict.

Academic engagement

Children’s attitudes toward learning were measured using the attitude toward learning subscale in the Preschool Learning Behavior Scale (PLBS; McDermott et al., 2002).

The measure includes 7 items (e.g., “Unwilling to be helped in difficulty,” a reversed item; “cooperative in group activities”) which are rated by the teachers in a 3-point scale ranging from 0 “doesn’t apply,” through 1 “sometimes applies,” and to 2 “most often applies.” We reversed negative items so higher scores indicate more positive attitudes toward learning, (i.e., children’s higher desire to please the teacher and succeed in class). Previous studies utilizing this subscale reported a good internal consistency (α = 0.76–0.82; e.g., Futterer et al., 2022; Rhoad‐Drogalis et al., 2018). The internal consistency in our study is α = 0.69.

Children’s academic self-perceptions were measured using the perceptions of academic competence subscale in the Feeling About School scale (FAS; Valeski & Stipek, 2001). The measure includes 6 items (e.g., “How good are you at learning something new in math?”; “How much do you know about reading?”) which are rated by the children through a direct one-on-one assessment. Children rate each item in a 5-point scale ranging from 1 to 5 when a higher score represents children’s more positive perceptions about their academic competence. Response options were presented to children as a series of 5 bars increasing in size, indicating an increasing level of agreement. Children were asked to indicate their responses by pointing at what bar size they perceived as most representative of their experiences. Previous studies that used this subscale reported an acceptable internal consistency (α = 0.66–0.86; e.g., Arnold et al., 2012; Longobardi et al., 2021; Malofeeva et al., 2004), the internal consistency in our study is also good (α = 0.81).

Analytic strategy

To test the hypothesized dual-pathway model, we applied sequential mediation analyses which include the examination of the direct and indirect paths from children’s RED patterns to their academic engagement through the children’s social behavior in class and following by the quality of teacher–child relationship, which all are composite variables. We performed the path analyses using the lavaan package in R (Rosseel, 2012) and applied the full information maximum likelihood estimation method to handle missing data (9.73%). In our model, we accounted for the potential covariations among the mediators and among the outcome variables. Further, we conducted all analyses with and without each of the control variables (child’s gender, age, and SES (a variable which was comprised of both s’mother education level and monthly household income)). The use of with- and without-covariate analyses allows non-biased disclosure of the extent to which a result is influenced by the presence or absence of a covariate (Simmons et al., 2011). Adding the control variables did not alter the pattern of results, so they were omitted for parsimony. Furthermore, we examined alternative models with cross-pathways between variables on the positive and negative parallel pathways (e.g., including pathways between competent RED and children’s problem behavior and teacher–child relational conflict). As part of determining the significance of all indirect effects, we also calculated the 95% confidence intervals (CI), making sure the intervals did not include zero. Materials and analysis codes for this study are available by emailing the corresponding author.

Results

Descriptive statistics

Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations for all study variables. No significant correlations were found between aggressive RED and teacher–child relational conflict, and the control variables of age, SES, and gender. Teacher–child relational closeness and children’s academic self-perceptions were positively related to children’s age (r = 0.19, p < 0.01; r = 0.25, p < 0.001, respectively). Competent RED was positively associated with SES, and problem behaviors were more evident among children with lower SES (r = 0.21, p < 0.001; r =  − 0.21 p < 0.01, respectively). Further, compared with boys (dummy-coded 1), girls (dummy-coded 2) demonstrated greater prosocial behavior, teacher–child relational closeness, and positive attitudes toward learning (r = 0.13, p < 0.05; r = 0.17 p < 0.01; r = 0.20 p < 0.001, respectively), and boys displayed more problem behaviors than girls (r =  − 0.16, p < 0.01).

Table 1 Descriptive statistics and correlations between the study variables
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Path analysis

To examine this study’s conceptual model that (1) links children’s competent RED to their academic engagement via their prosocial behaviors in class and subsequently the teacher–child relational closeness and simultaneously (2) links children’s aggressive RED to their academic engagement via their problem behaviors in class and subsequently the teacher–child relational conflict, we performed path analysis through which we assessed the model’s overall fit (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 2
figure 2

Dual-pathway model linking SIP patterns with children’s academic engagement via children’s social behavior and teacher–child relationships’ quality

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The overall model in our study fitted to the data: NFI = 0.97, CFI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.07, SRMR = 0.04, which is considered a good fit (Kline, 2011, 2016).

Results indicate two significant indirect effects of children’s competent RED on their academic engagement. The first is the link between children’s competent RED and their attitudes toward learning through children’s prosocial behaviors in class and teacher–child relational closeness. It includes the significant paths between (1) children’s competent RED and children’s prosocial behaviors in class (β = 0.14, p =  < 0.01), (2) children’s prosocial behaviors and the teacher–child relational closeness (β = 0.32, p ≤ 0.001), and lastly (3) teacher–child relational closeness and children’s attitudes toward learning (β = 0.16, p ≤ 0.001; 95%CI = 0.001, 0.005). The second is the link between children’s competent RED and their academic self-perceptions through children’s prosocial behaviors in class and teacher–child relational closeness. It includes the same paths between (1) children’s competent RED and children’s prosocial behaviors in class, (2) children’s prosocial behaviors and the teacher–child relational closeness, and lastly, the additional path between (3) teacher–child relational closeness and children’s academic self-perceptions (β = 0.19, p ≤ 0.01; 95% CI = 0.000, 0.008). A significant direct path was also identified, indicating that children’s prosocial behaviors in the class are positively linked to their attitudes toward learning (β = 0.28, p ≤ 0.001).

In addition, results indicate one significant indirect effect of children’s aggressive RED on their academic engagement. This relates to the link between children’s aggressive RED and their attitudes toward learning through children’s problem behaviors in class and teacher–child relational conflict. It includes the significant paths between (1) children’s aggressive RED and children’s problem behaviors (β = 0.12, p ≤ 0.05), (2) children’s problem behaviors and the teacher–child relational conflict (β = 0.54, p ≤ 0.001), and lastly, (3) teacher–child relational conflict and children’s attitudes toward learning (β =  − 0.24, p ≤ 0.001; 95%CI =  − 0.017, − 0.003). Contrary to the hypothesis, teacher–child relational conflict was not significantly related to children’s academic self-perceptions (β = 0.04, p = 0.564); therefore, the hypothesized indirect effect was not significant (95% CI =  − 0.004, 0.011). A significant direct path was also identified, indicating that children’s problem behaviors in the class are negatively linked to their attitudes toward learning (β =  − 0.28, p ≤ 0.001).

Robustness analysis

To ensure that the findings resulting from the hypothesized dual-pathway model are robust, we examined two alternative models which incorporate cross-pathways (see supplementary materials). The first alternative model included additional cross-pathways between competent RED and children’s problem behaviors and teacher–child relational conflict and between aggressive RED and children’s prosocial behaviors and teacher–child relational closeness. These additional cross-paths were not significant (β ranging from − 0.10 to − 0.01). The second alternative model included the additional possible cross-pathways between children’s prosocial behaviors and teacher–child relational conflict and between children’s problem behaviors and teacher–child relational closeness. Although the cross-pathway between children’s prosocial behaviors to teacher–child relational conflict was significant (β =  − 0.13, p ≤ 0.05), its effect was much smaller than the direct effect between children’s prosocial behaviors and teacher–child relational closeness (β = 0.27, p ≤ 0.001).

Furthermore, in order to determine if our results were influenced by demographic factors, we tested alternative models in which children’s gender, age, and SES were included. When controlling for gender, we found significant paths between gender and children’s prosocial behaviors (β = 0.13, p ≤ 0.05), problem behaviors (β =  − 0.15, p ≤ 0.01), and teacher–child relational closeness (β = 0.13, p ≤ 0.05); when controlling for age, we found significant paths between age and teacher–child relational closeness (β = 0.17, p ≤ 0.01) and children’s academic self-perceptions (β = 0.22, p ≤ 0.001); lastly, when controlling for SES, we found a significant path between SES and children’s problem behaviors (β =  − 0.19, p ≤ 0.01). These variables did not alter the pattern of results; therefore, they were dropped for parsimony.

Discussion

The current study provides evidence for three significant indirect effects between kindergarten children’s SIP patterns and their academic engagement. The first and second significant indirect effects demonstrate how students’ competent RED—their more appropriate social response and decision-making—positively relates to their academic engagement via their prosocial behavior and following by closeness to their teacher. Specifically, students demonstrating competent RED patterns are more likely to behave in a prosocial manner in the classroom and to have closer relationships with their teachers, which is then connected to greater academic engagement.

These results are consistent with the literature on social development in the kindergarten years. While research highlights the role of behavioral and relational factors (specifically, behavior with peers and teacher relationships) in predicting academic engagement, individual differences in social cognition have not yet been explored as indirect predictors of academic engagement. However, given that social cognition, and specifically children’s competent social decision-making patterns, had been consistently found to relate to prosocial behavior and better interpersonal relationships (Nelson & Crick, 1999; Ziv, 2013), the expectation for a meaningful association between social cognition and academic engagement is theoretically robust. Our study is unique in that it highlights the indirect path by which individual differences in kindergartners’ social cognitions (SIP) influence their behaviors and relationships and, therefore, positively influence their academic engagement.

Also consistent with the theoretical model and literature, we found an indirect pathway from aggressive RED to attitude toward learning, via problem behaviors in the classroom and following by teacher–child conflict. Specifically, students demonstrating aggressive RED, i.e., have the tendency to favor aggressive responses, are more likely to display problem behaviors in the classroom and to have more conflictual relationships with their teachers, which is then connected to less positive attitudes toward learning. Again, these results are consistent with our initial hypotheses and previous literature showing that there is a direct link between aggressive social information processing and problem behavior (Lansford et al., 2006; Orobio de Castro, et al., 2002; Ziv, 2013), problem behaviors and teacher–child conflict (Coplan et al., 2015; Hamre & Pianta, 2001; O’Connor et al., 2012; Varghese et al., 2019), and teacher–child conflict and less positive attitudes toward learning (Jerome et al., 2009).

Contrary to the hypothesized model, there was no support for the fourth expected indirect effect, that is, the path via which students’ aggressive RED is negatively associated with their academic self-perceptions through their problematic behavior in class, and their conflictual relationships with their teachers. There are a few potential explanations for this null finding. First, there is a possibility that kindergarten students are biased toward positive when presenting their academic skills (Bjorklund & Green, 1992; Harter, 2012), so their negative ratings may not provide enough variance to support significant relationships. Second, early academic development is dependent on various factors and relationships that can compensate for teacher–child conflict. For example, attachment theory posits that the parent–child relationship is meaningful not only for social-emotional but also for academic development (Caputi et al., 2017; Granot & Mayseless, 2001; Verschueren et al., 2012). In addition to the role of the parent in influencing academic self-perceptions, research shows that also peer relationships predict children’s academic engagement during school years (Kiefer et al., 2015; Wang & Eccles, 2012; Wentzel, 2003).

Implications

From an educational perspective, the current results emphasize the importance of focusing on children’s social perceptions in programs and interventions aimed at increasing academic engagement. Our findings show associations between aggressively biased decision-making processes and children’s poorer academic engagement via problem behavior and teacher–child conflict, while also showing that alternatively competent social decision-making processes are linked to stronger academic engagement via positive classroom social behavior and teacher–child closeness. Future educational interventions targeting academic engagement should consider focusing on building competent social decision-making processes to promote more competent social behavior and close teacher–child relationships, resulting in higher academic engagement among children.

Theoretically, these findings contributed to the existing body of literature on kindergarten academic engagement by looking at cognitive, behavioral, and relational social factors influencing engagement from both the positive and negative outcomes. The dual-pathway model can be understood within the theoretical framework of ecological systems theory, which posits that individuals and environments have a reciprocal and bidirectional influence on one another (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 1995). In a similar manner, the model of this study delineates the protective and risk trajectories of how individual factors (social cognition and academic engagement) influence but are also being influenced by the dynamic social environment in the kindergarten class which encompasses both behavioral and relational factors (prosocial or aggressive behaviors with peers and closeness or conflict with the teachers).

Limitations and future directions

Several limitations should be noted. First, our study is correlational in nature with one data collection point. While the conceptual pathway model is supported by the statistical analysis and prior literature, these relationships are not necessarily causal. The implied causality of the relationships may indeed be reversed or bidirectional.

Second, both children’s social behavior in class and the quality of the teacher–child relationships were reported by the teachers. Despite research shows that these assessments are highly reliable and valid (see Doumen et al., 2008; Gustafsson et al., 2017; Howes & Ritchie, 1999), in future studies, other informants, such as the children and their classmates, and multiple modalities of assessment, such as observation, would promote our understanding of the social behaviors and relationships that children develop and maintain in kindergarten and their consequences.

Third, as stated earlier, academic engagement encompasses cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions (Fredricks et al., 2004). In our study, we addressed two of the three dimensions—the cognitive, which also includes students’ academic self-perceptions, and the behavioral, which also includes students’ attitudes toward learning as expressed in their engagement in learning behaviors in class. Each dimension has its significant role and could be investigated separately. Further, while we included two aspects of academic engagement, the cognitive and behavioral aspects, incorporating the three components in future studies will be beneficial to capture the whole concept of academic engagement.

Conclusions

It is empirically established that student’s social competencies in class, such as their behaviors toward peers and the quality of their school-based relationships, are key factors of students’ academic engagement and success (Furrer et al., 2012; Teuscher & Makarova, 2018; Wang & Eccles, 2012). Our results contribute to this line of research by illustrating how young students’ SIP patterns are linked to the students’ academic engagement through their associations with the students’ social behaviors and later also their relationships with their teachers.

In addition to identifying social cognition as a potential precursor to students’ academic engagement, this study is the first to demonstrate two social-cognitive parallel trajectories for academic engagement within the same model. One more desirable trajectory shows how students’ competent SIP patterns may result in more academic engagement via students’ prosocial behaviors and teacher–child relational closeness, while another less desirable trajectory indicates that students’ aggressive SIP patterns may lead to lower academic engagement via students’ problem behaviors and conflict between teacher and child. That is, differences in social cognition contribute both positively and negatively to children’s academic engagement.