Abstract
School engagement is considered an antidote to several academic problems found in middle and high school. Previous data highlight the importance of understanding school engagement in early years. The present systematic review aims to outline investigations regarding school engagement in elementary school. Findings are expected to (i) help educators learn about research in a comprehensible way, (ii) design future school-based interventions with strong theoretical support, and (iii) systematize information about research gaps and indicate new avenues for investigation. The systematic search for original articles published up to 2018 followed the PRISMA statement and Cochrane’s guidelines. A total of 102 articles were included and organized, according to the self-system model of motivational development from Skinner et al. (Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 765–781, 2008). Results showed that balanced and quality support from peers, teachers, and parents positively influenced school engagement. Additionally, some common characteristics of the school context were found to undermine school engagement. Regarding interventions aimed to promote school engagement, we found various effective designs, differing in complexity. Moreover, studies focused on students’ emotions, behaviors and cognitions, experiences, motivational variables, and learning provided important inputs to promote school engagement. Furthermore, studies focused on examining the trajectories of school engagement provided data to understand how to prevent school engagement from declining throughout schooling. Finally, most studies found a positive and significant relationship between school engagement and achievement; however, results differ regarding the source of information or school domain examined. The school engagement conceptualizations, dimensions, and measures used were analyzed and their relationships to the results were discussed.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of Data and Material
Not applicable.
Code Availability
Not applicable.
References
References marked with an asterisk indicate studies included in the systematic review.
Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Kabbani, N. S. (2001). The dropout process in life course perspective: Early risk factors at home and school. Teachers College Record, 103, 760–822. https://doi.org/10.1111/0161-4681.00134
*Almasi, J. F., McKeown, M. G., & Beck, I. L. (1996). The nature of engaged reading in classroom discussions of literature. Journal of Literacy Research, 28(1), 107–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/10862969609547913
Appleton, J. J., Christenson, S. L., & Furlong, M. J. (2008). Student engagement with school: Critical conceptual and methodological issues of the construct. Psychology in the Schools, 45, 369–386. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20303
*Archambault, I., & Dupéré, V. (2016). Joint trajectories of behavioral, affective, and cognitive engagement in elementary school. The Journal of Educational Research, 110(2), 188–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2015.1060931
*Archambault, I., Kurdi, V., Olivier, E., & Goulet, M. (2016). The joint effect of peer victimization and conflict with teachers on student engagement at the end of elementary school. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 62(2), 207–232. https://doi.org/10.13110/merrpalmquar1982.62.2.0207
*Archambault, I., Pagani, L. S., & Fitzpatrick, C. (2013). Transactional associations between classroom engagement and relations with teachers from first through fourth grade. Learning and Instruction, 23, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.09.003
Aromataris, E., & Munn, Z. (2020). Chapter 1: JBI systematic reviews. In E. Aromataris, & Z. Munn. (Eds), JBI manual for evidence synthesis (pp. 14–21). JBI. https://doi.org/10.46658/JBIMES-20-02
*Ashiabi, G. (2005). Household food insecurity and children’s school engagement. Journal of Children and Poverty, 11(1), 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/1079612042000333027
*Baroody, A. E., Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., Larsen, R. A., & Curby, T. W. (2016). A multi-method approach for describing the contributions of student engagement on fifth grade students’ social competence and achievement in mathematics. Learning and Individual Differences, 48, 54–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.02.012
*Battistich, V., Solomon, D., Watson, M., & Schaps, E. (1997). Caring school communities. Educational Psychologist, 32(3), 137–151. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3203_1
*Blumenfeld, P. C., & Meece, J. L. (1988). Task factors, teacher behavior, and students’ involvement and use of learning strategies in science. Elementary School Journal, 88, 235–250. https://doi.org/10.1086/461536
*Bodovski, K., & Farkas, G. (2007). Mathematics growth in early elementary school: The roles of beginning knowledge, student engagement, and instruction. The Elementary School Journal, 108(2), 115–130. https://doi.org/10.1086/525550
Bramer, W. M., De Jonge, G. B., Rethlefsen, M. L., Mast, F., & Kleijnen, J. (2018). A systematic approach to searching: An efficient and complete method to develop literature searches. Journal of the Medical Library Association, 106(4), 531–541. https://doi.org/10.5195/jmla.2018.283
Brophy, J. (1983). Conceptualizing student motivation. Educational Psychologist, 18(3), 200–215. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461528309529274
*Brophy, J., Rohrkemper, M., Rashid, H., & Goldberger, M. (1983). Relationships between teachers’ presentations of classroom tasks and students’ engagement in those tasks. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75(4), 544. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.75.4.544
*Bryce, C. I., Bradley, R. H., Abry, T., Swanson, J., & Thompson, M. S. (2019). Parents’ and teachers’ academic influences, behavioral engagement, and first- and fifth-grade achievement. School Psychology, 34(5), 492–502. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000297
*Buhs, E. S. (2005). Peer rejection, negative peer treatment, and school adjustment: Self-concept and classroom engagement as mediating processes. Journal of School Psychology, 43(5), 407–424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2005.09.001
*Buhs, E. S., Ladd, G. W., & Herald, S. L. (2006). Peer exclusion and victimization: Processes that mediate the relation between peer group rejection and children’s classroom engagement and achievement? Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.98.1.1
*Cadima, J., Doumen, S., Verschueren, K., & Buyse, E. (2015). Child engagement in the transition to school: Contributions of self-regulation, teacher–child relationships and classroom climate. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 32, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2015.01.008
*Cai, E. Y. L., & Liem, G. A. D. (2017). ‘Why do I study and what do I want to achieve by studying?’ Understanding the reasons and the aims of student engagement. School Psychology International, 38(2), 131–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034316686399
*Cantrell, S. C., Almasi, J. F., Rintamaa, M., Carter, J. C., Pennington, J., & Buckman, D. M. (2014). The impact of supplemental instruction on low-achieving adolescents’ reading engagement. The Journal of Educational Research, 107(1), 36–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2012.753859
*Cappella, E., Kim, H. Y., Neal, J. W., & Jackson, D. R. (2013). Classroom peer relationships and behavioral engagement in elementary school: The role of social network equity. American Journal of Community Psychology, 52, 367–379. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-013-9603-5
Caraway, K., Tucker, C. M., Reinke, W. M., & Hall, C. (2003). Self-efficacy, goal orientation, and fear of failure as predictors of school engagement in high school students. Psychology in the Schools, 40(4), 417–427. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.10092
*Chen, Q., Hughes, J. N., Liew, J., & Kwok, O. M. (2010). Joint contributions of peer acceptance and peer academic reputation to achievement in academically at-risk children: Mediating processes. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 31, 448–459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2010.09.001
Cheon, S. H., & Reeve, J. (2015). A classroom-based intervention to help teachers decrease students’ amotivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 40, 99–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2014.06.004
Christenson, S. C., Reschly, A. C., & Wylie, C. (Eds.). (2012). The handbook of research on student engagement. New York: Springer Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7
Christenson, S. L., & Reschly, A. L. (2012). Jingle, jangle, and conceptual haziness: Evolution and future directions of the engagement construct. In S. L. Christenson, A. L. Reschly, & C. Wylie. (Eds), Handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 3–19). New York Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7_1
Christenson, S. L., Reschly, A. L., Appleton, J. J., Berman, S., Spanjers, D., & Varro, P. (2008). Best practices in fostering student engagement. In A. Thomas, & J. Grimes, (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology (pp. 1099–1120). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
Connell, J. P. (1990). Context, self and action: A motivational analysis of self-system processes across the life span. In D. Cicchetti & M. Beeghly (Eds.), The self in transition: Infancy to childhood (pp. 61–97). University of Chicago Press.
Connell, J. P., & Wellborn, J. G. (1991). Competence, autonomy, and relatedness: A motivational analysis of self-system processes. In M. R. Gunnar & L. A. Sroufe (Eds.), Self process and development: The Minnesota symposia on child development (Vol. 23, pp. 43–77). Erlbaum.
Cunha, J., Rosário, P., Núñez, J. C., Vallejo, G., Martins, J., & Högemann, J. (2019). Does teacher homework feedback matter to 6th graders’ school engagement?: A mixed methods study. Metacognition and Learning, 14(2), 89–129. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-019-09200-z
*Darensbourg, A. M., & Blake, J. J. (2013). Predictors of achievement in African American students at risk for academic failure: The roles of achievement values and behavioral engagement. Psychology in the Schools, 50, 1044–1059. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21730
*De Laet, S., Colpin, H., Vervoort, E., Doumen, S., Van Leeuwen, K., Goossens, L., & Verschueren, K. (2015). Developmental trajectories of children’s behavioral engagement in late elementary school: Both teachers and peers matter. Developmental Psychology, 51, 1292–1306. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039478
Deci EL, Ryan RM (1985).Conceptualizations of intrinsic motivation and self-determinationIntrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior 11–40https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7_2
*Deed, C. (2008). Disengaged boys' perspectives about learning. Education, 3–13, 36(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004270701577248
*Dolezal, S. E., Welsh, L. M., Pressley, M., & Vincent, M. M. (2003). How nine third-grade teachers motivate student academic engagement. The Elementary School Journal, 103(3), 239–267. https://doi.org/10.1086/499725
*Dornhecker, M., Blake, J. J., Benden, M., Zhao, H., & Wendel, M. (2015). The effect of stand-biased desks on academic engagement: An exploratory study. International Journal of Health Promotion and Education, 53(5), 271–280. https://doi.org/10.1080/14635240.2015.1029641
*Dotterer, A. M., & Lowe, K. (2011). Classroom context, school engagement, and academic achievement in early adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40(12), 1649–1660. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-011-9647-5
*Downer, J. T., Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., & Pianta, R. C. (2007). How do classroom conditions and children’s risk for school problems contribute to children’s behavioral engagement in learning? School Psychology Review, 36(3), 413–432. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2007.12087938
Estell, D., & Perdue, N. (2013). Social support and behavioral and affective school engagement: The effects of peers, parents, and teachers. Psychology in the Schools, 50, 325–339. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21681
Fletcher, A. C., Darling, N. E., Steinberg, L., & Dornbusch, S. M. (1995). The company they keep: Relation of adolescents’ adjustment and behavior to their friends’ perceptions of authoritative parenting in the social network. Developmental Psychology, 31, 300–310. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.31.2.300
Fredricks, J. A. (2014). Eight myths of student disengagement: Creating classrooms of deep learning. Los Angeles, CA: Corwin. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483394534
Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74, 59–109. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543074001059
Fredricks, J. A., Filsecker, M., & Lawson, M. A. (2016). Student engagement, context, and adjustment: Addressing definitional, measurement, and methodological issues. Learning and Instruction, 43, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.02.002
*Furrer, C., & Skinner, E. (2003). Sense of relatedness as a factor in children’s academic engagement and performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(1), 148. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-0663.95.1.148
*Galla, B., Wood, J., Tsukayama, E., Har, K., Chiu, A., & Langer, D. (2014). A longitudinal multilevel model analysis of the within-person and between-person effect of effortful engagement and academic self-efficacy on academic performance. Journal of School Psychology, 52, 295–308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2014.04.001
Gottfried, A. E., Marcoulides, G. A., Gottfried, A. W., Oliver, P. H., & Guerin, D. W. (2007). Multivariate latent change modeling of developmental decline in academic intrinsic math motivation and achievement: Childhood through adolescence. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 31, 317–327. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025407077752
*Greenwood, C. R. (1991). Longitudinal analysis of time, engagement, and achievement in at-risk versus non-risk students. Exceptional Children, 57(6), 521–535. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440299105700606
*Gremmen, M. C., Van den Berg, Y. H., Steglich, C., Veenstra, R., & Dijkstra, J. K. (2018). The importance of near-seated peers for elementary students’ academic engagement and achievement. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 57, 42–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2018.04.004
*Gruman, D. H., Harachi, T. W., Abbott, R. D., Catalano, R. F., & Fleming, C. B. (2008). Longitudinal effects of student mobility on three dimensions of elementary school engagement. Child Development, 79(6), 1833–1852. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01229.x
*Guo, Y., Connor, C. M., Tompkins, V., & Morrison, F. J. (2011). Classroom quality and student engagement: Contributions to third-grade reading skills. Frontiers in Educational Psychology, 2, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00157
*Guo, Y., Sun, S., Breit-Smith, A., Morrison, F. J., & Connor, C. M. (2015). Behavioral engagement and reading achievement in elementary-school-age children: A longitudinal cross-lagged analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(2), 332–347. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037638
Gusenbauer, M., & Haddaway, N. R. (2020). Which academic search systems are suitable for systematic reviews or meta-analyses? Evaluating retrieval qualities of Google Scholar, PubMed, and 26 other resources. Research Synthesis Methods, 11(2), 181–217. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.1378
Guthrie, J. T., & Wigfield, A. (2000). Engagement and motivation in reading. In M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Reading research handbook (Vol. 3, pp. 403–424). Mahwah, NJ:Erlbaum.
*Guthrie, J. T., Meter, P., McCann, A. D., Wigfield, A., Bennett, L., Poundstone, C. C., & Mitchell, A. M. (1996). Growth of literacy engagement: Changes in motivations and strategies during concept-oriented reading instruction. Reading Research Quarterly, 31(3), 306–332. https://doi.org/10.1598/rrq.31.3.5
*Guthrie, J. T., Wigfield, A., Barbosa, P., Perencevich, K. C., Taboada, A., Davis, M. H., & Tonks, S. (2004). Increasing reading comprehension and engagement through concept-oriented reading instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(3), 403–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.403
Hand, B., Shelley, M. C., Laugerman, M., Fostvedt, L., & Therrien, W. (2018). Improving critical thinking growth for disadvantaged groups within elementary school science: A randomized controlled trial using the Science Writing Heuristic approach. Science Education, 102(4), 693–710. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21341
Hanover Research. (2013). Student perceptions surveys and teacher assessments. Washington, DC. Retrieved from https://dese.mo.gov/sites/default/files/Hanover-Research-Student-Surveys.pdf
*Hastings, N., & Schweiso, J. (1995). Tasks and tables: The effects of seating arrangements on task engagement in primary classrooms. Educational Research, 37(3), 279–291. https://doi.org/10.1080/0013188950370306
Heng, K. (2014). The relationships between student engagement and the academic achievement of FirstYear university students in Cambodia. Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 2, 179–189. https://doi.org/10.1007/s4029901300958
*Herrenkohl, L. R., & Guerra, M. R. (1998). Participant structures, scientific discourse, and student engagement in fourth grade. Cognition and Instruction, 16(4), 431–473. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532690xci1604_3
Higgins, J. P., Thomas, J., Chandler, J., Cumpston, M., Li, T., Page, M. J., & Welch, V. A. (Eds.). (2019). Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions. John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119536604
Hill, C. J., Bloom, H. S., Black, A. R., & Lipsey, M. W. (2008). Empirical benchmarks for interpreting effect sizes in research. Child Development Perspectives, 2(3), 172–177. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2008.00061.x
Hirschfield, P. J., & Gasper, J. (2011). The relationship between school engagement and delinquency in late childhood and early adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-010-9579-5
*Hoglund, W. L., Klingle, K. E., & Hosan, N. E. (2015). Classroom risks and resources: Teacher burnout, classroom quality and children’s adjustment in high needs elementary schools. Journal of School Psychology, 53, 337–357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2015.06.002
Horstmanshof, L., & Zimitat, C. (2007). Future time orientation predicts academic engagement among first-year university students. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 703–718. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709906x160778
*Hosan, N. E., & Hoglund, W. (2017). Do teacher–child relationship and friendship quality matter for children's school engagement and academic skills?. School Psychology Review, 46(2), 201–218. https://doi.org/10.17105/spr-2017-0043.v46-2
Huang, D., Coordt, A., La Torre, D., Leon, S., Miyoshi, J., Perez, P., & Peterson, C. (2007). The after-school hours: Examining the relationship between afterschool staff-based social capital and student engagement in LA’s BEST. Los Angeles, CA: National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing. https://doi.org/10.1037/e643962011-001
*Hughes, J. N., & Kwok, O. M. (2006). Classroom engagement mediates the effect of teacher–student support on elementary students’ peer acceptance: A prospective analysis. Journal of School Psychology, 43(6), 465 480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2005.10.001
*Hughes, J. N., & Kwok, O. M. (2007). Influence of student-teacher and parent-teacher relationships on lower achieving readers’ engagement and achievement in the primary grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(1), 39–51. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.1.39
*Hughes, J. N., & Zhang, D. (2007). Effects of the structure of classmates’ perceptions of peers’ academic abilities on children’s perceived cognitive competence, peer acceptance, and engagement. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 32, 400–419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2005.12.003
*Hughes, J. N., Dyer, N., Luo, W., & Kwok, O. M. (2009). Effects of peer academic reputation on achievement in academically at-risk elementary students. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 30, 182–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2008.12.008
*Hughes, J. N., Luo, W., Kwok, O. M., & Loyd, L. K. (2008). Teacher-student support, effortful engagement, and achievement: A 3-year longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.100.1.1
*Hughes, J. N., Wu, W., & West, S. G. (2011). Teacher performance goal practices and elementary students’ behavioral engagement: A developmental perspective. Journal of School Psychology, 49(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2010.09.003
*Hughes, J. N., Zhang, D., & Hill, C. R. (2006). Peer assessments of normative and individual teacher–student support predict social acceptance and engagement among low-achieving children. Journal of School Psychology, 43(6), 447–463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2005.10.002
*Iyer, R. V., Kochenderfer-Ladd, B., Eisenberg, N., & Thompson, M. (2010). Peer victimization and effortful control: Relations to school engagement and academic achievement. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 56(3), 361–387. https://doi.org/10.1353/mpq.0.0058
Jang, H., Kim, E. J., & Reeve, J. (2016). Why students become more engaged or more disengaged during the semester: A self-determination theory dual-process model. Learning and Instruction, 43, 27–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.01.002
Jang, H., Reeve, J., Ryan, R. M., & Kim, A. (2009). Can self-determination theory explain what underlies the productive, satisfying learning experiences of collectivistically oriented Korean students? Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(3), 644–661. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014241
Janosz, M., Archambault, I., Morizot, J., & Pagani, L. S. (2008). School engagement trajectories and their differential predictive relations to dropout. Journal of Social Issues, 64(1), 21–40. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2008.00546.x
Jimerson, S. R., Campos, E., & Greif, J. L. (2003). Toward an understanding of definitions and measures of school engagement and related terms. The California School Psychologist, 8(1), 7–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03340893
*Kaiser, J., Retelsdorf, J., Südkamp, A., & Möller, J. (2013). Achievement and engagement: How student characteristics influence teacher judgments. Learning and Instruction, 28, 73–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.06.001
*Kim, H. Y., & Cappella, E. (2016). Mapping the social world of classrooms: A multi-level, multi-reporter approach to social processes and behavioral engagement. American Journal of Community Psychology, 57(1–2), 20–35. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12022
*Kindermann, T. A. (1993). Natural peer groups as contexts for individual development: The case of children’s motivation in school. Developmental Psychology, 29(6), 970–977. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.29.6.970
*Kindermann, T. A. (2007). Effects of naturally existing peer groups on changes in academic engagement in a cohort of sixth graders. Child Development, 78(4), 1186–1203. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01060.x
Krause, K. L., & Coates, H. (2008). Students’ engagement in first-year university. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 33, 493–505. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602930701698892
*Kwon, K., Kupzyk, K., & Benton, A. (2018). Negative emotionality, emotion regulation, and achievement: Cross-lagged relations and mediation of academic engagement. Learning and Individual Differences, 67, 33–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2018.07.004
*Lan, X., Ponitz, C. C., Miller, K. F., Li, S., Cortina, K., Perry, M., & Fang, G. (2009). Keeping their attention: Classroom practices associated with behavioral engagement in first grade mathematics classes in China and the United States. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 24(2), 198–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2009.03.002
*Langhout, R. D., & Mitchell, C. A. (2008). Engaging contexts: Drawing the link between student and teacher experiences of the hidden curriculum. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 18(6), 593–614. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.974
*Lee, O., & Anderson, C. W. (1993). Task engagement and conceptual change in middle school science classrooms. American Educational Research Journal, 30(3), 585–610. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312030003585
Li, Y., & Lerner, R. M. (2011). Trajectories of school engagement during adolescence: Implications for grades, depression, delinquency, and substance use. Developmental Psychology, 47, 233–347. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021307
*Li, Y., Lerner, J. V., & Lerner, R. M. (2010). Personal and ecological assets and academic competence in early adolescence: The mediating role of school engagement. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39(7), 801–815. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-010-9535-4
Li-Grining, C. P., Votruba-Drzal, E., Maldonado-Carreno, C., & Hass, K. (2010). Children’s early approaches to learning and academic trajectories through fifth grade. Developmental Psychology, 46(5), 1063–1077. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020066
*Linnenbrink-Garcia, L., Rogat, T. K., & Koskey, K. L. K. (2011). Affect and engagement during small group instruction. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36(1), 13–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2010.09.001
*Liu, R.-D., Zhen, R., Ding, Y., Liu, Y., Wang, J., Jiang, R., & Xu, L. (2017). Teacher support and math engagement: Roles of academic self-efficacy and positive emotions. Educational Psychology, 38(1), 3–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2017.1359238
*Luo, W., Hughes, J. N., Liew, J., & Kwok, O. (2009). Classifying academically at-risk first graders into engagement types: Association with long-term achievement trajectories. The Elementary School Journal, 109(4), 380–405. https://doi.org/10.1086/593939
*Lutz, S. L., Guthrie, J. T., & Davis, M. H. (2006). Scaffolding for engagement in elementary school reading instruction. The Journal of Educational Research, 100(1), 3–20. https://doi.org/10.3200/joer.100.1.3-20
*Lynch, A. D., Lerner, R. M., & Leventhal, T. (2013). Adolescent academic achievement and school engagement: An examination of the role of school-wide peer culture. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(1), 6–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9833-0
MacLellan, P. (2016). Why don't teachers use education research in teaching?. Education in Chemistry. Retrieved from https://eic.rsc.org/analysis/why-dont-teachers-use-education-research-in-teaching/2010170.article.
Mahatmya, D., Lohman, B. J., Matjasko, J. L., & Farb, A. F. (2012). Engagement across developmental periods. In S. L. Christenson, A. L. Reschly, & C. Wylie. (Eds), Handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 45–63). New York Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7_3
*Martens, B. K., Bradley, T. A., & Eckert, T. L. (1997). Effects of reinforcement history and instructions on the persistence of student engagement. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30(3), 569–572. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1997.30-569
*Martens, B. K., Lochner, D. G., & Kelly, S. Q. (1992). The effects of variable-interval reinforcement on academic engagement: A demonstration of matching theory. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25(1), 143–151. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1992.25-143
Martin, A. J. (2013). Academic buoyancy and academic resilience: Exploring ‘everyday’ and ‘classic’ resilience in the face of academic adversity. School Psychology International, 34(5), 488–500. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034312472759
*Martin, D. P., & Rimm-Kaufman, S. E. (2015). Do student self-efficacy and teacher-student interaction quality contribute to emotional and social engagement in fifth grade math? Journal of School Psychology, 53(5), 359–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2015.07.001
McClelland, M. M., Acock, A. C., & Morrison, F. J. (2006). The impact of kindergarten learning-related skills on academic trajectories at the end of elementary school. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 21(4), 471–490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2006.09.003
McGrath, K. F., & Van Bergen, P. (2015). Who, when, why and to what end? Students at risk of negative student–teacher relationships and their outcomes. Educational Research Review, 14, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2014.12.001
*McHugh, M. B., Tingstrom, D. H., Radley, K. C., Barry, C. T., & Walker, K. M. (2016). Effects of Tootling on classwide and individual disruptive and academically engaged behavior of lower-elementary students. Behavioral Interventions, 31(4), 332–354. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.1447
*Meece, J. L., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Hoyle, R. H. (1988). Students’ goal orientations and cognitive engagement in classroom activities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(4), 514–523. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-0663.80.4.514
*Miller, L. M., Dufrene, B. A., Olmi, D. J., Tingstrom, D., & Filce, H. (2015a). Self-monitoring as a viable fading option in check-in/check-out. Journal of School Psychology, 53, 121–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2014.12.004
*Miller, L. M., Dufrene, B. A., Sterling, H. E., Olmi, D. J., & Bachmayer, E. (2015b). The effects of check-in/check-out on problem behavior and academic engagement in elementary school students. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 17, 28–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300713517141
Mireles-Rios, R., & Romo, L. F. (2010). Maternal and teacher interaction and student engagement in math and reading among Mexican American girls from a rural community. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 32(3), 456–469. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739986310374020
Mo, Y., & Singh, K. (2008). Parents’ relationships and involvement: Effects on students’ school engagement and performance. RMLE Online, 31(10), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/19404476.2008.11462053
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., & Altman, D. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 62(10), 1006–1012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2009.06.005
*Moller, S., Stearns, E., Mickelson, R. A., Bottia, M. C., & Banerjee, N. (2014). Is academic engagement the panacea for achievement in mathematics across racial/ethnic groups? Assessing the role of teacher culture. Social Forces, 92, 1513–1544. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sou018
*Mullender-Wijnsma, M. J., Hartman, E., de Greeff, J. W., Bosker, R. J., Doolaard, S., & Visscher, C. (2015). Moderate-to-vigorous physically active academic lessons and academic engagement in children with and without a social disadvantage: A within subject experimental design. BMC Public Health, 15, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-015-1745-y
Newmann, F. (1992). Higher-order thinking and prospects for classroom thoughtfulness. In F. Newmann (Ed.), Student engagement and achievement in American secondary schools (pp. 62–91). Teachers College Press.
Newmann, F., Wehlage, G. G., & Lamborn, S. D. (1992). The significance and sources of student engagement. In F. Newmann (Ed.), Student engagement and achievement in American secondary schools (pp. 11–39). Teachers College Press.
Nystrand, M., & Gamoran, A. (1991). Instructional discourse, student engagement, and literature achievement. Research in the Teaching of English, 25, 261–290.
*O’Neal, C. R. (2018). The impact of stress on later literacy achievement via grit and engagement among dual language elementary school students. School Psychology International, 39(2), 138–155. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034317752519
*O’Neal, C. R., Boyars, M. Y., & Riley, L. W. (2019). Dual language learners’ grit, engagement, and literacy achievement in elementary school. School Psychology International, 40(6), 598–623. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034319875176
OECD (2012). PISA 2012 results: What students know and can do – Student performance in mathematics, reading and science (Volume I). Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results-volume-I.pdf
*Olivier, E., Archambault, I., & Dupéré, V. (2018). Boys’ and girls’ latent profiles of behavior and social adjustment in school: Longitudinal links with later student behavioral engagement and academic achievement? Journal of School Psychology, 69, 28–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2018.05.006
*Pagani, L. S., Fitzpatrick, C., & Parent, S. (2012). Relating kindergarten attention to subsequent developmental pathways of classroom engagement in elementary school. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40(5), 715–725. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-011-9605-4
*Parsons, S. A., Malloy, J. A., Parsons, A. W., & Burrowbridge, S. C. (2015). Students’ engagement in literacy tasks. The Reading Teacher, 69(2), 223–231. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1378
*Parsons, S. A., Malloy, J. A., Parsons, A. W., Peters-Burton, E. E., & Burrowbridge, S. C. (2016). Sixth-grade students’ engagement in academic tasks. The Journal of Educational Research, 111(2), 232–245. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2016.1246408
*Patrick, B. C., Skinner, E. A., & Connell, J. P. (1993). What motivates children’s behavior and emotion? Joint effects of perceived control and autonomy in the academic domain. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(4), 781–791. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.65.4.781
*Patrick, H., Ryan, A. M., & Kaplan, A. (2007). Early adolescents’ perceptions of the classroom social environment, motivational beliefs, and engagement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(1), 83–98. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.1.83
*Perdue, N. H., Manzeske, D. P., & Estell, D. B. (2009). Early predictors of school engagement: Exploring the role of peer relationships. Psychology in the Schools, 46(10), 1084–1097. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20446
*Peterson, P. L., & Fennema, E. (1985). Effective teaching, student engagement in classroom activities, and sex-related differences in learning mathematics. American Educational Research Journal, 22(3), 309–335. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312022003309
*Peterson, P. L., Swing, S. R., Stark, K. D., & Waas, G. A. (1984). Students’ cognitions and time on task during mathematics instruction. American Educational Research Journal, 21(3), 487–515. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312021003487
*Pierson, L. H., & Connell, J. P. (1992). Effect of grade retention of self-system processes, school engagement, and academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(3), 300–307. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.84.3.300
Pino-James, N., Shernoff, D. J., Bressler, D. M., Larson, S. C., & Sinha, S. (2019). Instructional interventions that support student engagement: An international perspective. In J. A. Fredricks, A. L. Reschly, & S. L. Christenson. (Eds), Handbook of student engagement interventions: Working with disengaged students (pp. 103–119). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-813413-9.00008-5
*Portilla, X. A., Ballard, P. J., Adler, N. E., Boyce, W. T., & Obradović, J. (2014). An integrative view of school functioning: Transactions between self-regulation, school engagement, and teacher–child relationship quality. Child Development, 85, 1915–1931. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12259
*Raphael, L. M., Pressley, M., & Mohan, L. (2008). Engaging instruction in middle school classrooms: An observational study of nine teachers. The Elementary School Journal, 109(1), 61–81. https://doi.org/10.1086/592367
Reeve, J., & Tseng, C.-M. (2011). Agency as a fourth aspect of students’ engagement during learning activities. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36(4), 257–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2011.05.002
Reeve, J. (2013). How students create motivationally supportive learning environments for themselves: The concept of agentic engagement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(3), 579–595. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032690
*Reyes, M., Brackett, M., Rivers, S., White, M., & Salovey, P. (2012). Classroom emotional climate, student engagement, and academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(3), 700–712. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027268
Reyna, V. F., & Brainerd, C. J. (2007). The importance of mathematics in health and human judgment: Numeracy, risk communication, and medical decision making. Learning and Individual Differences, 17, 147–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2007.03.010
Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., Early, D. M., Cox, M. J., Saluja, G., Pianta, R. C., Bradley, R. H., & Payne, C. (2002). Early behavioral attributes and teachers’ sensitivity as predictors of competent behavior in the kindergarten classroom. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 23(4), 451–470. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0193-3973(02)00128-4
*Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., Larsen, R. A. A., Abry, T., Baroody, A. E., & Curby, T. W. (2015). To what extent do teacher–student interaction quality and student gender contribute to fifth graders’ engagement in mathematics learning? Journal of Educational Psychology, 107, 170–185. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037252
Rosário, P., Cunha, J., Nunes, T., Nunes, A. R., Moreira, T., & Núñez, J. C. (2019). “Homework should be… but we do not live in an ideal world”: Mathematics teachers’ perspectives on quality homework and on homework assigned in elementary and middle schools. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00224
Rosário, P., Núñez, J. C., Rodríguez, C., Cerezo, R., Fernández, E., Tuero, E., & Högemann, J. (2017a). Analysis of instructional programs for improving self-regulated learning SRL through written text. In R. Fidalgo, K. Harris, and M. Braaksma (Eds.), Design principles for teaching effective writing (pp. 201–231). Leiden: Brill Editions. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004270480_010
*Rosário, P., Núñez, J. C., Vallejo, G., Azevedo, R., Pereira, R., Moreira, T., & Valle, A. (2017b). Promoting Gypsy children’s behavioural engagement and school success: Evidence from a four-wave longitudinal study. British Educational Research Journal, 43(3), 554–571. https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3271
*Rosário, P., Núñez, J. C., Vallejo, G., Cunha, J., Azevedo, R., Pereira, R., & Moreira, T. (2016). Promoting Gypsy children school engagement: A story-tool project to enhance self-regulated learning. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 47, 84–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.11.005
Rosário, P., Núñez, J. C., Ferrando, P., Paiva, O., Lourenço, A., Cerezo, R., & Valle, A. (2013). The relationship between approaches to teaching and approaches to studying: A two-level structural equation model for biology achievement in high school. Metacognition and Learning, 8(1), 47–77. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-013-9095-6
Rousseau, D. M. (Ed.). (2012). The Oxford handbook of evidence-based management. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199763986.001.0001
Rumberger, R. W., & Lim, S. A. (2008). Why students drop out of school: A review of 25 years of research (California Dropout Research Project). Retrieved from http://www.cdrp.ucsb.edu/pubs_reports.htm
*Sage, N. A., & Kindermann, T. A. (1999). Peer networks, behavior contingencies, and children’s engagement in the classroom. Merrill- Palmer Quarterly, 45, 143–171. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23093320
Salmela-Aro, K., & Upadyaya, K. (2012). The schoolwork engagement inventory. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 28(1), 60–67. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000091
*Salmela-Aro, K., Muotka, J., Alho K., Hakkarainen K., & Lonka, K. (2016). School burnout and engagement profiles among digital natives in Finland: A person-oriented approach. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 13(6), 704–718. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2015.1107542
Salvador-Oliván, J. A., Marco-Cuenca, G., & Arquero-Avilés, R. (2019). Errors in search strategies used in systematic reviews and their effects on information retrieval. Journal of the Medical Library Association, 107(2). https://doi.org/10.5195/jmla.2019.567
*Schardt, A. A., Miller, F. G., & Bedesem, P. L. (2018). The effects of CellF-Monitoring on students’ academic engagement: A technology-based self-monitoring intervention. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 21(1), 42–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300718773462
Shernoff, D. J. (2013). Optimal learning environments to promote student engagement. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7089-2
*Shin, H. (2017). Examining early adolescents’ peer climate using descriptive and status norms on academic engagement and aggressive behavior in the classroom. Asia Pacific Education Review, 18(3), 309–320. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-017-9494-5
Sinatra, G. M., Heddy, B. C., & Lombardi, D. (2015). The challenges of defining and measuring student engagement in science. Educational Psychologist, 50, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2014.1002924
Sinclair, M. F., Christenson, S. L., Lehr, C. A., & Anderson, A. R. (2003). Facilitating student engagement: Lessons learned from Check & Connect longitudinal studies. The California School Psychologist, 8(1), 29–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03340894
*Skinner, E. A., & Belmont, M. J. (1993). Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behavior and student engagement across the school year. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 571–581. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.85.4.571
Skinner, E. A., & Pitzer, J. R. (2012). Developmental dynamics of student engagement, coping, and everyday resilience. In S. L. Christenson, A. L. Reschly, & C. Wylie (Eds.), Handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 21–44). New York: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7_2
Skinner, E. A., Kindermann, T. A., & Furrer, C. J. (2009). A motivational perspective on engagement and disaffection: Conceptualization and assessment of children’s behavioral and emotional participation in academic activities in the classroom. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 69(3), 493–525. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164408323233
*Skinner, E. A., Pitzer, J. R., & Steele, J. S. (2016). Can student engagement serve as a motivational resource for academic coping, persistence, and learning during late elementary and early middle school? Developmental Psychology, 52(12), 2099–2117. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000232
Skinner, E., Furrer, C., Marchand, G., & Kindermann, T. (2008). Engagement and disaffection in the classroom: Part of larger motivational dynamic. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 765–781. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012840
*Skinner, E. A., Wellborn, J. G., & Connell, J. P. (1990). What it takes to do well in school and whether I’ve got it: The role of perceived control in children’s engagement and school achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 22–32. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.82.1.22
*Strambler, M. J., & McKown, C. (2013). Promoting student engagement through evidence-based action research with teachers. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 23(2), 87–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/10474412.2013.757153
*Strambler, M. J., & Weinstein, R. S. (2010). Psychological disengagement in elementary school among ethnic minority students. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 31(2), 155–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2009.11.006
Stroet, K., Opdenakker, M. C., & Minnaert, A. (2013). Effects of need supportive teaching on early adolescents’ motivation and engagement: A review of the literature. Educational Research Review, 9, 65–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2012.11.003
Sylva, K., Scott, S., Totsika, V., Ereky-Stevens, K., & Crook, C. (2008). Training parents to help their children read: A randomized control trial. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 435–455. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709907x255718
Uman, L. S. (2011). Systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 20(1), 57–59.
Wang, M. T., Fredricks, J. A., Ye, F., Hofkens, T. L., & Linn, J. S. (2016). The math and science engagement scales: Scale development, validation, and psychometric properties. Learning and Instruction, 43, 16–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.01.008
Wang, M., & Fredricks, J. A. (2013). The reciprocal links between school engagement, youth problem behaviors, and school dropout during adolescence. Child Development, 85, 722–737. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12138
Wang, M., & Holcombe, R. (2010). Adolescents’ perceptions of school environment, engagement, and academic achievement in middle school. American Educational Research Journal, 47, 633–662. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831209361209
Wang, M., Willett, J. B., & Eccles, J. S. (2011). The assessment of school engagement: Examining dimensionality and measurement invariance by gender and race/ethnicity. Journal of School Psychology, 49, 465–480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2011.04.001
Wanyama SB, McQuaid RW, KittlerM 2021).Where you search determines what you find: The effects of bibliographic databases on systematic reviewsInternational Journal of Social Research Methodology1–13https://doi.org/10.1080/13645579.2021.1892378
*Weyns, T., Colpin, H., De Laet, S., Engels, M., & Verschueren, K. (2017). Teacher support, peer acceptance, and engagement in the classroom: A three-wave longitudinal study in late childhood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47(6), 1139–1150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-017-0774-5
*Wigfield, A., Guthrie, J. T., Perencevich, K. C., Taboada, A., Klauda, S. L., McRae, A., & Barbosa, P. (2008). Role of reading engagement in mediating effects of reading comprehension instruction on reading outcomes. Psychology in the Schools, 45(5), 432–445. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20307
*Wong, R. S. M., Ho, F. K. W., Wong, W. H. S., Tung, K. T. S., Chow, C. B., Rao, N., & Ip, P. (2018). Parental involvement in primary school education: Its relationship with children’s academic performance and psychosocial competence through engaging children with school. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(5), 1544–1555. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-1011-2
Wonglorsaichon, B., Wongwanich, S., & Wiratchai, N. (2014). The influence of students school engagement on learning achievement: A structural equation modeling analysis. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 116, 1748–1755. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.467
*Wu, J.-Y., Hughes, J. N., & Kwok, O. M. (2010). Teacher–student relationship quality type in elementary grades: Effects on trajectories for achievement and engagement. Journal of School Psychology, 48(5), 357–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2010.06.004
*Wu, X., Anderson, R. C., Nguyen-Jahiel, K., & Miller, B. (2013). Enhancing motivation and engagement through discussion. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(3), 622–632. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032792
Wellborn, J. G. (1991). Engaged and disaffected action: The conceptualization and measurement of motivation in the academic domain. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York.
*Yang, M.-Y., Chen, Z., Rhodes, J. L. F., & Orooji, M. (2018). A longitudinal study on risk factors of grade retention among elementary school students using a multilevel analysis: Focusing on material hardship and lack of school engagement. Children and Youth Services Review, 88, 25–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.02.043
Yazzie-Mintz, E. (2007). Voices of students on engagement: A report on the 2006 high school survey of student engagement. Indiana University.
Zeuli, J. S. (1994). How do teachers understand research when they read it? Teaching and Teacher Education, 10(1), 39–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/0742-051x(94)90039-6
Zhang, D., Wehmeyer, M. L., & Chen, L.-J. (2005). Parent and teacher engagement in fostering the self-determination of students with disabilities: A comparison between the United States and the Republic of China. Remedial and Special Education, 26(1), 55–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/07419325050260010701
Funding
This study was partially conducted at the Psychology Research Centre (PSI/01662), University of Minho, and supported by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology and the Portuguese Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education (UID/PSI/01662/2019), through the national funds (PIDDAC). Juliana Martins (SFRH/BD/132058/2017) was supported by a PhD studentship from the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT; Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P.), funded with allocations from the State Budget of the Ministry for Science, Technology and Higher Education, and with allocations from the European Social Fund, to be made available under PORTUGAL2020, namely through the North Regional Operational Program (NORTE 2020).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
J. M. wrote the manuscript with valuable inputs from the remaining authors. J. M., J. C., T. M., and P. R. substantially contributed to the conception and the design of the work. J. M. was responsible for literature search and data extraction. J. M. and S. L. were responsible for the blinded literature search selection and data extraction. J. C. oversaw data interpretation and provided technical guidance. P. R. made important intellectual contributions during the research design and manuscript revision. All authors agreed for all aspects of the work and approved the version to be published.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing Interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Martins, J., Cunha, J., Lopes, S. et al. School Engagement in Elementary School: A Systematic Review of 35 Years of Research. Educ Psychol Rev 34, 793–849 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-021-09642-5
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-021-09642-5