Abstract
The use of paddy straw (PS) is proposed in this research as a reinforcing filler for manufacturing reinforced polymeric composite using polypropylene (PP) and could present a cost-effective and feasible substitute for conventional wood-based plywood. The PS/PP composites could potentially offer a sustainable solution by virtue of the abundance and renewability of this waste biomass and huge quantities of recyclable segregated polymer from solid waste processors. The short-fiber-reinforced paddy straw composites were manufactured using the injection molding technique—which could be supportive for industry-scale production with high reliable quality and design flexibility. The composites were characterized systematically—where the 60:40 wt% ratio of PS: PP was the optimum. The shock resistance positively correlated with fiber loading with a maximum value of 2818 J/m2. The tensile and flexural strengths were found to be maximum at 60 wt% of fiber loading. The developed PS/PP composites exhibited low water absorption as compared to their wood counterparts—which could be beneficial for their application in furniture, insulators, packaging, and interiors in the housing sector. Further, the valorization of paddy straw can potentially diminish the present practice of open-burning of this agricultural residue. Thus, the gainful utilization of paddy straw could offer multiple benefits, including a reduction in GHG emissions and deforestation. This innovation can potentially contribute to achieving the UN's sustainable development goals, including Climate Action (SDG 13), Responsible Consumption and Production (SDG 12), Decent Work and Economic Growth (SDG 8), and Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure (SDG 9).
Graphical abstract
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
References
Abdurrahman MI, Chaki S, Saini G (2020) Stubble burning: effects on health and environment, regulations and management practices. Environmental Advances 2:100011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envadv.2020.100011
Akinyemi BA, Kolajo TE, Adedolu O (2022) Blended formaldehyde adhesive bonded particleboards made from groundnut shell and rice husk wastes. Clean Technol Environ Polic 24(6):1653–1662. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-021-02270-1
Albano C et al (2001) Effects of filler treatments on the mechanical and morphological behavior of PP+ wood flour and PP+ sisal fiber. Mater Res Innov 4(5–6):284–293. https://doi.org/10.1007/s100190000108
Al-Oqla FM, Sapuan SM (2014) Natural fiber reinforced polymer composites in industrial applications: feasibility of date palm fibers for sustainable automotive industry. J Clean Prod 66:347–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.10.050
Amir N, Abidin KA, Shiri FB (2017) Effects of fibre configuration on mechanical properties of banana fibre/PP/MAPP natural fibre reinforced polymer composite. Procedia Eng 184:573–580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.04.140
Ashori A, Nourbakhsh A (2010) Bio-based composites from waste agricultural residues. Waste Manage 30(4):680–684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2009.08.003
ASTM D256 (2010) Standard test methods for determining the izod pendulum impact resistance of plastics. https://doi.org/10.1520/D0256-10R18. Accessed 31 December 2022
ASTM E1131 (2020a) Standard test method for compositional analysis by thermogravimetry. https://doi.org/10.1520/E1131-20. Accessed 24 Jul 2023
ASTM D4442 (2020b) Standard test methods for direct moisture content measurement of wood and wood-base materials. https://doi.org/10.1520/D4442-20. Accessed 12 Jan 2023
ASTM D570 (2018) Standard test method for water absorption of plastics. https://doi.org/10.1520/D0570-98R18. Accessed 28 December 2022
ASTM D638 (2014) Standard test method for tensile properties of plastics. https://doi.org/10.1520/D0638-14. Accessed 28 December 2022
ASTM D790 (2017) Standard test methods for flexural properties of unreinforced and reinforced plastics and electrical insulating materials. https://doi.org/10.1520/D0790-17. Accessed on 15 Jan 2023
Ayeni AO et al (2013) Hydrogen peroxide and lime based oxidative pretreatment of wood waste to enhance enzymatic hydrolysis for a biorefinery: process parameters optimization using response surface methodology. Fuel 106:187–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2012.12.078
Balda S, Sharma A, Capalash N, Sharma P (2021) Banana fibre: a natural and sustainable bioresource for eco-friendly applications. Clean Technol Environ Policy 23:1389–1401. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-021-02041-y
Bassyouni M, Hasan SW (2015) The use of rice straw and husk fibers as reinforcements in composites. In: Biofiber reinforcements in composite materials, Woodhead Publishing, pp 385–422. https://doi.org/10.1533/9781782421276.4.385
Bettini SH et al (2010) Investigation on the use of coir fiber as alternative reinforcement in polypropylene. J Appl Polym Sci 118(5):2841–2848. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.32418
Boonterm M et al (2016) Characterization and comparison of cellulose fiber extraction from rice straw by chemical treatment and thermal steam explosion. J Clean Prod 134:592–599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.09.084
Butylina S, Hyvärinen M, Kärki T (2012) A study of surface changes of wood-polypropylene composites as the result of exterior weathering. Polym Degrad Stab 97(3):337–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2011.12.014
Callister WD Jr, Rethwisch DG (2020) Fundamentals of materials science and engineering: an integrated approach. Wiley
Chakma S, Ranjan A, Choudhury HA, Dikshit PK, Moholkar VS (2016) Bioenergy from rice crop residues: role in developing economies. Clean Technol Environ Policy 18:373–394. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-015-1051-5
Chaturvedi AK, Pappu A, Srivastava AK, Gupta MK (2021) Synthesis dielectric and mechanical properties of paddy straw derived graphene quantum dots-stone waste nanocomposite. Mater Lett 301:130323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2021.130323
Chegdani F, Takabi B, El Mansori M, Tai BL, Bukkapatnam ST (2020) Effect of flax fiber orientation on machining behavior and surface finish of natural fiber reinforced polymer composites. J Manuf Process 54:337–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2020.03.025
Chen M, Ma Y, Xu Y, Chen X, Zhang X, Lu C (2013) Isolation and characterization of cellulose fibers from rice straw and its application in modified polypropylene composites. Polym-Plast Technol Eng 52(15):1566–1573. https://doi.org/10.1080/03602559.2013.824465
Conrad CM (1944) Determination of wax in cotton fiber a new alcohol extraction method. Ind Eng Chem Anal Ed 16(12):745–748
Das O et al (2022) Natural and industrial wastes for sustainable and renewable polymer composites. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 158:112054. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.112054
Dhakal HN, Zhang ZA, Richardson MO (2007) Effect of water absorption on the mechanical properties of hemp fibre reinforced unsaturated polyester composites. Compos Sci Technol 67(7–8):1674–1683. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2006.06.019
Di Blasi C, Signorelli G, Di Russo C, Rea G (1999) Product distribution from pyrolysis of wood and agricultural residues. Ind Eng Chem Res 38(6):2216–2224. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie980711u
Díaz-Mendoza JM, Valles-Rosales DJ, Park YH, Sabo RC (2022) Micromechanical modeling for tensile properties of wood plastic composites: use of pruned waste from pecan orchards as sustainable material for reinforcement of thermoplastic composite. Polymers 14(3):504. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14030504
Dinh VuN, Thi Tran H, Duy Nguyen T (2018) Characterization of polypropylene green composites reinforced by cellulose fibers extracted from rice straw. Int J Polym Sci 2018:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/1813847
El-Shekeil YA, Sapuan SM, Abdan K, Zainudin ES (2012) Influence of fiber content on the mechanical and thermal properties of Kenaf fiber reinforced thermoplastic polyurethane composites. Mater Des 40:299–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2012.04.003
ESCAP U (2018) Status of straw management in Asia-Pacific and options for integrated straw management
Espert A, Vilaplana F, Karlsson S (2004) Comparison of water absorption in natural cellulosic fibres from wood and one-year crops in polypropylene composites and its influence on their mechanical properties. Compos A Appl Sci Manuf 35(11):1267–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2004.04.004
Gironès J, Lopez JP, Vilaseca F, Herrera-Franco PJ, Mutje P (2011) Biocomposites from musa textilis and polypropylene: evaluation of flexural properties and impact strength. Compos Sci Technol 71(2):122–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2010.10.012
Gond RK, Naik TP, Gupta MK, Singh I (2022) Development and characterisation of sugarcane bagasse nanocellulose/PLA composites. Mater Technol 37(14):2942–2954. https://doi.org/10.1080/10667857.2022.2088616
Granda LA et al (2016) Semichemical fibres of Leucaena collinsii reinforced polypropylene composites: flexural characterisation, impact behaviour and water uptake properties. Compos B Eng 97:176–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2016.04.063
Grozdanov A et al (2006) Rice straw as an alternative reinforcement in polypropylene composites. Agron Sustain Dev 26(4):251–255. https://doi.org/10.1051/agro:2006023
Gryczak M, Bernadin AM (2021) Development and characterization of sustainable agglomerated composites formulated from castor polyurethane resin and reinforced with rice husk. Clean Technol Environ Polic. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-021-02036-9
Gumowska A, Kowaluk G, Labidi J, Robles E (2019) Barrier properties of cellulose nanofiber film as an external layer of particleboard. Clean Technol Environ Polic 21:2073–2079. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-019-01760-7
Haque R, Saxena M, Shit SC, Asokan P (2015) Fibre-matrix adhesion and properties evaluation of sisal polymer composite. Fibers Polym 16(1):146–152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12221-015-0146-2
Hassan MM, Mueller M, Tartakowska DJ, Wagner MH (2011) Mechanical performance of hybrid rice straw/sea weed polypropylene composites. J Appl Polym Sci 120(3):1843–1849. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.33403
Huang S, Fu Q, Yan L, Kasal B (2021) Characterization of interfacial properties between fibre and polymer matrix in composite materials–a critical review. J Mater Res Technol 13:1441–1484. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.05.076
Ismail MR, Ali A, Yassen M, Afify MS (2011) Mechanical properties of rice straw fiber-reinforced polymer composites. Fibers Polym 12(5):648. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12221-011-0648-5
Jain N, Bhatia A, Pathak H (2014) Emission of air pollutants from crop residue burning in India. Aerosol Air Qual Res 14(1):422–430. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2013.01.0031
Jakob M et al (2022) The strength and stiffness of oriented wood and cellulose-fibre materials: a review. Prog Mater Sci 18:100916. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2021.100916
Jayamani E, Hamdan S, Rahman MR, Bakri MK (2015) Study of sound absorption coefficients and characterization of rice straw stem fibers reinforced polypropylene composites. BioResources 10(2):3378–3392. https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.10.2.3378-3392
Karastergiou PS, Philippou JL (2000) Thermogravimetric analysis of fire-retardant treated particleboards. Wood Fire Saf 2000:385–394
Khan A, Tyagi P, Pappu A (2019) Epoxy-polypyrrole-straw composites: towards higher dielectric constant and lower water absorption. Mater Lett 254:262–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2019.07.073
Ku H, Wang H, Pattarachaiyakoop N, Trada M (2011) A review on the tensile properties of natural fiber reinforced polymer composites. Compos B Eng 42(4):856–873. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2011.01.010
Kumar A, Sengupta B, Dasgupta D, Mandal T, Datta S (2016) Recovery of value added products from rice husk ash to explore an economic way for recycle and reuse of agricultural waste. Rev Environ Sci Bio Technol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-015-9388-0
Kumar A, Roy A, Priyadarshinee R, Sengupta B, Malaviya A, Dasguptamandal D, Mandal T (2017) Economic and sustainable management of wastes from rice industry: combating the potential threats. Environ Sci Pollut Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-0293-7
Kumar P et al (2015) The extent and management of crop stubble. Socioeconomic and environmental implications of agricultural residue burning: a case study of Punjab, India pp 13-34, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-2014-5
Kumar S, Varadarajan YS, Shamprasad MS (2023) Three-body abrasive wear behavior of rice straw fibers reinforced PLA composites. Materials Today: Proceedings https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.05.009
Lee CH, Khalina A, Lee SH (2021) Importance of interfacial adhesion condition on characterization of plant-fiber-reinforced polymer composites: a review. Polymers 13(3):438. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13030438
Liu X, Wang J, Liu T, Cheng Q, Li A, Li Y, Liu Z, Sun J, Liu D (2023) Study on Epoxy Resin Composite Reinforced with Rice Straw Fiber Materials. Materials 16(4) 1370. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16041370
Low JH, Andenan N, Wan Abdul Rahman WA (2018) The influence of crosslink chemicals on the mechanical strength and water absorption of rice straw-based green composites. J Nat Fibers 15(1):122–130. https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2017.1321514
Mahmood H, Moniruzzaman M, Yusup S, Akil HM (2016) Particulate composites based on ionic liquid-treated oil palm fiber and thermoplastic starch adhesive. Clean Technol Environ Policy 18:2217–2226. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-016-1132-0
Maurya AK, Manik G (2023) Advances towards development of industrially relevant short natural fiber reinforced and hybridized polypropylene composites for various industrial applications: a review. J Polym Res 30(1):47–69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10965-022-03413-8
Maurya AK, Gogoi R, Manik G (2022a) Recycling and reinforcement potential for the fly ash and sisal fiber reinforced hybrid polypropylene composite. Polym Compos 43(2):1060–1077. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.26434
Maurya AK, Gogoi R, Manik G (2022b) Sisal fiber/fly ash-reinforced hybrid polypropylene composite: an investigation into the thermal, rheological, and crystallographic properties. In: Recent advances in mechanical engineering: selected proceedings of CAMSE 2021 2022 721-731. Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-2188-9_65
Ming-Zhu P, Chang-Tong M, Xu-Bing Z, Yun-Lei P (2011) Effects of rice straw fiber morphology and content on the mechanical and thermal properties of rice straw fiber-high density polyethylene composites. J Appl Polym Sci 121(5):2900–3007. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.33913
Neto JS, de Queiroz HF, Aguiar RA, Banea MD (2021) A review on the thermal characterisation of natural and hybrid fiber composites. Polymers 13(24):4425. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13244425
MN Nguyen (2020) Worldwide bans of rice straw burning could increase human arsenic exposure.https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c00866
Ochoa M, Collazos N, Le T, Subramaniam R, Sanders M, Singh RP, Depan D (2017) Nanocellulose-PE-b-PEG copolymer nanohybrid shish-kebab structure via interfacial crystallization. Carbohyd Polym 159:116–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.12.028
Pang B, Zhou T, Cao XF, Zhao BC, Sun Z, Liu X, Chen YY, Yuan TQ (2022) Performance and environmental implication assessments of green bio-composite from rice straw and bamboo. J Clean Prod 375:134037. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.134037
Pappu A, Pickering KL, Thakur VK (2019) Manufacturing and characterization of sustainable hybrid composites using sisal and hemp fibres as reinforcement of poly (lactic acid) via injection moulding. Ind Crops Prod 137:260–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2019.05.040
Patel RV, Yadav A, Winczek J (2023) Physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of natural fiber-reinforced epoxy composites for construction and automotive applications. Appl Sci 13(8):5126. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13085126
Peng J, Abomohra AE, Elsayed M, Zhang X, Fan Q, Ai P (2019) Compositional changes of rice straw fibers after pretreatment with diluted acetic acid: towards enhanced biomethane production. J Clean Prod 230:775–782. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.05.155
Peng Y, Zha D, Bin G, Bengang L, Panxin L (2020) Effect of wheat straw oxidation on thermoplastic starch composites: mechanical, thermal, and rheological process behaviors. J Thermoplast Compos Mater 33(5):646–658. https://doi.org/10.1177/0892705718809802
Qin L, Qiu J, Liu M, Ding S, Shao L, Lü S, Zhang G, Zhao Y, Fu X (2011) Mechanical and thermal properties of poly (lactic acid) composites with rice straw fiber modified by poly (butyl acrylate). Chem Eng J 166(2):772–778. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2010.11.039
Raza MH, Abid M, Faisal M, Yan T, Akhtar S, Adnan KM (2022) Environmental and health impacts of crop residue burning: scope of sustainable crop residue management practices. Int J Environ Res Public Health 19(8):4753. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084753
Rezghi Maleki H, Hamedi M, Kubouchi M, Arao Y (2019) Experimental investigation on drilling of natural flax fiber-reinforced composites. Mater Manuf Process 34(3):283–292. https://doi.org/10.1080/10426914.2018.1532584
Roy P, Tadele D, Defersha F, Misra M, Mohanty AK (2019) Environmental and economic prospects of biomaterials in the automotive industry. Clean Technol Environ Polic. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-019-01735-8
Saba N, Paridah MT, Jawaid M (2015) Mechanical properties of kenaf fibre reinforced polymer composite: a review. Constr Build Mater 76:87–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.11.043
Sanjay MR, Madhu P, Jawaid M, Senthamaraikannan P, Senthil S, Pradeep S (2018) Characterization and properties of natural fiber polymer composites: a comprehensive review. J Clean Prod 172:566–581. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.10.101
Singh G, Gupta MK, Chaurasiya S, Sharma VS, Pimenov DY (2021) Rice straw burning: a review on its global prevalence and the sustainable alternatives for its effective mitigation. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28(25):32125–32155. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14163-3
Singh J, Singhal N, Singhal S, Sharma M, Agarwal S, Arora S (2018) Environmental implications of rice and wheat stubble burning in north-western states of India. In: Advances in health and environment safety: select proceedings of HSFEA 2016, Springer, Singapore, pp 47–55 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7122-5_6
Souza AT et al (2020) Caranan fiber from Mauritiella armata palm tree as novel reinforcement for epoxy composites. Polymers 12(9):2037. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12092037
Taha I, El-Sabbagh A, Ziegmann G (2008) Modelling of strength and stiffness behaviour of natural fibre reinforced polypropylene composites. Polym Polym Compos 16(5):295–302
Teklay A, Gebeyehu G, Getachew T, Yaynshet T, Sastry TP (2017) Preparation of value added composite boards using finished leather waste and plant fibers—a waste utilization effort in Ethiopia. Clean Technol Environ Policy. 19:1285-1296. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-016-1327-4
UNEP (2020) How to feed 10 billion people? Available at https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/how-feed-10-billion-people
UNEP (2021) Pollution Action Note – Data you need to know. Available at https://www.unep.org/interactives/airpollution-note/?gclid=Cj0KCQjwpompBhDZARIsAFD_Fp8WVxL1q2Cyb_AToOyUK92BMYlDNqClTNsquA5XNTWDD91hR4On-caAv77EALw_wcB
Uppal N, Pappu A, Patidar R, Gowri VS (2019) Synthesis and characterization of short sisal fibre polyester composites. Bull Mater Sci 42:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12034-019-1792-6
Väisänen T, Haapala A, Lappalainen R, Tomppo L (2016) Utilization of agricultural and forest industry waste and residues in natural fiber-polymer composites: a review. Waste Manage 54:62–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.04.037
Várdai R, Lummerstorfer T, Pretschuh C, Jerabek M, Gahleitner M, Faludi G, Móczó J, Pukánszky B (2020) Comparative study of fiber reinforced PP composites: effect of fiber type, coupling and failure mechanisms. Compos A Appl Sci Manuf 133:105895. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2020.105895
Waters CL, Janupala RR, Mallinson RG, Lobban LL (2017) Staged thermal fractionation for segregation of lignin and cellulose pyrolysis products: an experimental study of residence time and temperature effects. J Anal Appl Pyrol 126:380–389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2017.05.008
Xia T et al (2018) The characteristic changes of rice straw fibers in anaerobic digestion and its effect on rice straw-reinforced composites. Ind Crops Prod 121:73–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2018.04.004
Yadav IC, Devi NL (2019) Biomass burning, regional air quality, and climate change. In: Earth systems and environmental sciences. Edition: encyclopedia of environmental health. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.11022-X
Yağci Ö, Eker Gümüş B, Taşdemir M (2022) Thermal, structural and morphological properties of polypropylene and high density polyethylene polymer composites filled with waste urea formaldehyde. Polym Bull 5:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-022-04245-8
Zhang T, Wooster MJ, Green DC, Main B (2015) New field-based agricultural biomass burning trace gas, PM2. 5, and black carbon emission ratios and factors measured in situ at crop residue fires in Eastern China. Atmos Environ 121:22–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.05.010
Zhang YP, Wang J, Xia KW, Zhao YF, Yuan QW, Huang ZX, Feng Y, Qu JP (2023) Water evaporation induced insitu interfacial compatibilization for all-natural and high-strength straw-fiber/starch composites. Carbohydr Polyme 305:120535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.120535
Zindani D, Kumar S, Maity SR, Bhowmik S (2021) Mechanical characterization of bio-epoxy green composites derived from sodium bicarbonate treated Punica granatum short fiber agro-waste. J Polym Environ 29:143–155. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-020-01868-8
Acknowledgements
The first author would like to acknowledge the financial support from the Ministry of Human Resource and Development, India, for the doctoral scholarship. The authors are highly grateful to the Advanced Mechanical Testing Facility (AMTF) at the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, for providing amenities for specimen testing.
Funding
The authors hereby declare that no funds, grants, or other support was received for the preparation of this manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
SS contributed to the conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis and investigation, and writing—original draft preparation. SRA and AP were involved in writing—review and editing and supervision. All authors have read and agreed to the final version of the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Sharma, S., Pappu, A. & Asolekar, S.R. Sustainable recycling of paddy straw through development of short-fiber-reinforced composites: exploring gainful utilization of agricultural waste. Clean Techn Environ Policy 26, 109–127 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-023-02607-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-023-02607-y