Abstract
Cross-modal approaches to the study of sensory perception, social recognition, cognition, and mental representation have proved fruitful in humans as well as in a variety of other species including toothed whales in revealing equivalencies that suggest that different sensory stimuli associated with objects or individuals may effectively evoke mental representations that are, respectively, object based or individual based. Building on established findings of structural equivalence in the form of spontaneous recognition of complex shapes across the modalities of echolocation and vision and behavior favoring identity echoic–visual cross-modal relationships over associative echoic–visual cross-modal relationships, examinations of transitive inference equivalencies from initially learned associations of visual and acoustic stimuli, and recent work examining spontaneous cross-modal social recognition of individual identity across acoustic and gustatory chemical modalities (i.e., the equivalence relationships among an individual’s characteristics), we examine the history, utility and implications for cross-modal research in cetacean cognition. Drawing from research findings on bottlenose dolphins and beluga whales as well as other species we suggest future directions for cetacean cross-modal research to further illuminate understanding how structural and individual sensory equivalencies lead to object-centered and individual-centered mental representations, as well as to explore the potential for practical applications related to cetacean conservation.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abravanel E (1973) Division of labor between hand and eye when perceiving shape. Neuropsychologia 11(2):207–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0028-3932(73)90009-2
Abumrad NA (2005) CD36 may determine our desire for dietary fats. J Clin Investig 115(11):2965–2967. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI26955
Adachi I, Fujita K (2007) Cross-modal representation of human caretakers in squirrel monkeys. Behav Proc 74(1):27–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2006.09.004
Adachi I, Kuwahata H, Fujita K (2007) Dogs recall their owner’s face upon hearing the owner’s voice. Anim Cogn 10(1):17–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-006-0025-8
Altesa RA, Dankiewicz LA, Moore PW, Helweg DA (2003) Multiecho processing by an echolocating dolphin. J Acoust Soc Am 114(2):1155–1166. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.1590969
Atema J (1995) Chemical signals in the marine environment: dispersal, detection, and temporal signal analysis. In: Eisner T, Meinwald J (eds) Chemical ecology: the chemistry of biotic interaction. The National Academies Press, p 224. https://doi.org/10.17226/4979
Au WWL (1993) The sonar of dolphins. Springer-Verlag
Au W (2018) History of bioacoustics research on aquatic and marine organisms in Hawaii. J Acoust Soc Am 143(3):1769–1769. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.5035791
Au WWL, Nachtigall PE (1997) Acoustics of echolocating dolphins and small whales. Mar Freshw Physiol Behav 29:127–162
Au WWL, Schusterman RJ, Kersting DA (1980) Sphere-cylinder discrimination via echolocation by Tursiops truncatus. In: Busnel RG, Fish JF (eds) Animal sonar systems. Plenum Press, pp 859–862
Azzali M, Manzini A, Buracchi G (1995) Acoustic recognition by a dolphin of shapes. In: Kastelein RA, Thomas JA, Nachtigall PE (eds) Sensory systems in aquatic mammals. De Spil Publishers, pp 137–156
Baciadonna L, Solvi C, La Cava S, Pilenga C, Gamba M, Favaro L (2021) Cross-modal individual recognition in the African penguin and the effect of partnership. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 288(1960):20211463. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2021.1463
Bradbury JW, Vehrencamp SL (2011) Principles of animal communication. Sinauer
Bruck JN (2013a) Decades-long social memory in bottlenose dolphins. Proc R Soc B 280:1726. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.1726
Bruck JN (2013b) New perspectives on dolphin whistles: Evaluating signal context, categorization and memory. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Chicago, Chicago
Bruck JN (2019a) Chemical signals. In: Vonk J, Shackelford T (eds) Encyclopedia of animal cognition and behavior. Springer International Publishing, pp 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6_1654-1
Bruck JN (2019b) Long-term memory. In: Vonk J, Shackelford T (eds) Encyclopedia of animal cognition and behavior. Springer International Publishing, pp 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6_783-1
Bruck JN, Walmsley SF, Janik VM (2022) Cross-modal perception of identity by sound and taste in bottlenose dolphins. Sci Adv 8(20):eabm7684. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abm7684
Bryant PE, Jones P, Claxton V, Perkins GM (1972) Recognition of shapes across modalities by infants. Nature 240:303–304
Bushnell EW, Weinberger N (1987) Infants’ detection of visual–tactual discrepancies: asymmetries that indicate a directive role of visual information. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 13:601–608
Caldwell MC, Caldwell DK (1965) Individualized whistle contours in bottlenosed dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Nature 207:434–435
Church RM, Meck WH (1984) The numerical attribute of stimuli. In: Roitblat HL, Bever TG, Terrace HS (eds) Animal cognition. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp 445–464
Cozzi B, Huggenberger S, Oelschläger H (2016) Anatomy of Dolphins, 1st edn. Academic Press
Davenport RK (1976) Cross-modal perception in apes. Ann N Y Acad Sci 280:143–149. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1976.tb25482.x
Davenport RK, Rogers CM (1970) Intermodal equivalence of stimuli in apes. Science 168:279–280
Davenport RK, Rogers CM, Russell IS (1975) Cross-model perception in apes. Altered visual cues and delay. Neuropsychologia 13:229–235
DeLong CM, Fellner W, Wilcox KT, Odell K, Harley HE (2020) Visual perception in a bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus): successful recognition of 2-D objects rotated in the picture and depth planes. J Comp Psychol 134(2):180–196. https://doi.org/10.1037/com0000207
DiMattia BV, Posley KA, Fuster JM (1990) Crossmodal short-term memory of haptic and visual information. Neuropsychologia 28(1):17–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/0028-3932(90)90083-Z
Ettlinger G, Garcha HS (1980) Cross-modal recognition by the monkey: the effects of cortical removals. Neuropsychologia 18(6):685–692. https://doi.org/10.1016/0028-3932(80)90108-6
Evans T, Howell S, Westergaard G (2005) Auditory-visual cross-modal perception of communicative stimuli in Tufted Capuchin Monkeys (Cebus apella). J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process 31:399–406. https://doi.org/10.1037/0097-7403.31.4.399
Féron J, Gentaz E, Streri A (2006) 04/01). Evidence of amodal representation of small numbers across visuo-tactile modalities in 5-month-old infants. Cogn Dev 21:81–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2006.01.005
Finneran JJ, Schlundt CE, Branstetter B, Dear RL (2007) Assessing temporary threshold shift in a bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) using multiple simultaneous auditory evoked potentials. J Acoust Soc Am 122(2):1249–1264. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.2749447
Friedl WA, Nachtigall PE, Moore PW, Chun NKW, Haun JE, Hall RW, Richards JL (1990) Taste reception in the Pacific bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus gilli) and the California sea lion (Zalophus californianus). In: Thomas JA, Kastelein RA (eds) Sensory abilities of cetaceans: laboratory and field evidence. Plenum Press
Gibson EJ, Walker AS (1984) Development of knowledge of visual–tactual affordances of substrance. Child Dev 55:360–453
Gilfillan G, Vitale J, McNutt JW, McComb K (2016) Cross-modal individual recognition in wild African lions. Biol Lett 12(8):20160323. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2016.0323
Gunnars T, Bruck JN (2019) Visual perception. In: Vonk J, Shackelford T (eds) Encyclopedia of animal cognition and behavior. Springer International Publishing, pp 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6_610-1
Harley HE, DeLong CM (2008) Echoic object recognition by the bottlenose dolphin. Comp Cogn Behav Rev 3:46–65. https://doi.org/10.3819/ccbr.2008.30003
Harley H, Roitblat HL, Nachtigall PE (1996) Object representation in the bottlenosed dolphin (Tursiops truncatus): integration of visual and echoic information. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process 22:164–174
Harley HE, Putman EA, Roitblat HL (2003) Bottlenose dolphins perceive object features through echolocation. Nature 424:667–669
Herman LM (1986) Cognition and language competencies of bottlenosed dolphins. In: Schusterman RJ, Thomas J, Wood FG (eds) Dolphin cognition and behavior: a comparative approach. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp 221–251
Herman LM, Forestell PH (1985) Reporting presence or absence of named objects by a language-trained dolphin. Neurosci Behav Rev 9:667–691
Herman LM, Pack AA (1992) Echoic–visual cross-modal recognition by a dolphin. In: Thomas JR, Kastelein RA, Supin AY (eds) Sensory processes of marine mammals. Plenum, pp 709–726
Herman LM, Kuczaj S III, Holder MD (1993) Responses to anomalous gestural sequences by a language-trained dolphin: evidence for processing of semantic relations and syntactic information. J Exp Psychol Gen 122:184–194
Herman LM, Pack AA, Hoffmann-Kuhnt M (1998) Seeing through sound: dolphins perceive the spatial structure of objects through echolocation. J Comp Psychol 112:292–305
Herzing DL (1996) Vocalizations and associated underwater behavior of free-ranging Atlantic spotted dolphins, Stenella frontalis and bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus. Aquat Mamm 22:61–79
Hoffmann-Kuhnt M, Chitre MA, Seekings PJ, Abel G (2008) Acoustics of shape recognition by a dolphin in a cross-modal matching-to-sample paradigm. J Acoust Soc Am 123(5):3361–3361. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.2933955
Izumi A (2013) Cross-modal representation in humans and nonhuman animals: a comparative perspective. In: Belin P, Campanella S, Ethofer T (eds) Integrating face and voice in person perception. Springer, New York, pp 29–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3585-3_2
Janik VM (1999) Origins and implications of vocal learning in bottlenose dolphins. In: Box HO, Gibson KR (eds) Mammalian social learning: comparative and ecological perspectives. Cambridge University Press, pp 308–326
Janik VM (2000) Whistle matching in wild bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Science 289:1355–1357
Janik VM (2009) Acoustic communication in delphinids. Adv Stud Behav 40:123–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-3454(09)40004-4
Janik VM (2013) Cognitive skills in bottlenose dolphin communication. Trends Cogn Sci 17(4):157–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2013.02.005
Janik VM, Slater PJB (1997) Vocal learning in mammals. Adv Study Behav 26:59–99
Janik VM, Slater PJB (1998) Context-specific use suggests that bottlenose dolphin signature whistles are cohesion calls. Anim Behav 56:829–838
Janik VM, Slater PJB (2000) The different roles of social learning in vocal communication. Anim Behav 60:1–11
Janik VM, Sayigh LS, Wells RS (2006) Signature whistle shape conveys identity information to bottlenose dolphins. Proc Natl Acad Sci 103:8293–8297. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0509918103
Jones B (1981) The developmental significance of cross-modal matching. In: Walk RD, Pick HL (eds) Intersensory perception and sensory integration. Plenum Press, pp 109–136
King SL, Janik VM (2013) Bottlenose dolphins can use learned vocal labels to address each other. Proc Natl Acad Sci USAm Early Edn 110:13216–13221
King SL, Sayigh L, Wells R, Fellner W, Janik VM (2013) Vocal copying of individually distinctive signature whistles in bottlenose dolphins. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.0053
Kishida T, Thewissen J, Hayakawa T, Imai H, Agata K (2015) Aquatic adaptation and the evolution of smell and taste in whales. Zool Lett 1:9–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40851-014-0002-z
Kondo N, Izawa E-I, Watanabe S (2012) Crows cross-modally recognize group members but not non-group members. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 279(1735):1937–1942. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2011.2419
Kujala T, Alho K, Näätänen R (2000) Cross-modal reorganization of human cortical functions. Trends Neurosci 23(3):115–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0166-2236(99)01504-0
Kulahci IG, Ghazanfar AA (2013) Multisensory recognition in vertebrates (especially primates). Integrating face and voice in person perception. Springer Science + Business Media, pp 3–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3585-3_1
Kulahci IG, Drea CM, Rubenstein DI, Ghazanfar AA (2014) Individual recognition through olfactory–auditory matching in lemurs. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 281(1784):20140071. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.0071
Kuznetsov VB (1990) Chemical sense of dolphins: quasi-olfaction. In: Thomas JA, Kastelein RA (eds) Sensory abilities of cetaceans. Plenum Press, pp 481–503
Kuznetsov VB (1992) Quasi-olfaction of dolphins. In: Doty RL, Müller-Schwarze D (eds) Chemical signals in vertebrates 6. Springer US, pp 543–549
Lampe JF, Andre J (2012) Cross-modal recognition of human individuals in domestic horses (Equus caballus). Anim Cogn 15(4):623–630. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-012-0490-1
Lindemann-Biolsi KL, Reichmuth C (2013) Cross-modal transitivity in a California sea lion (Zalophus californianus). Anim Cogn 17(4):879–890. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-013-0721-0
Mann D, Hill-Cook M, Manire C, Greenhow D, Montie E, Powell J, Wells R, Bauer G, Cunningham-Smith P, Lingenfelser R, DiGiovanni R Jr, Stone A, Brodsky M, Stevens R, Kieffer G, Hoetjes P (2010) Hearing loss in stranded odontocete dolphins and whales. PLoS ONE 5(11):e13824–e13824. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0013824
Meck W, Church R, Olton D (2013) 10/01). Hippocampus, time, and memory. (Reprinted for 30th anniversary). Behav Neurosci 127:655–668. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034188
Meltzoff AN, Borton RW (1979) Intermodal matching by human neonates. Nature 282:403–404
Mezzera C, López-Bendito G (2016) Cross-modal plasticity in sensory deprived animal models: from the thalamocortical development point of view. J Chem Neuroanat 75(Pt A):32–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchemneu.2015.09.005
Moll FW, Nieder A (2015) Cross-modal associative mnemonic signals in crow endbrain neurons. Curr Biol 25(16):2196–2201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.07.013
Muraco H, Kuczaj SA (2015) Conceptive estrus behavior in three bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Anim Behav Cogn 2:30–48. https://doi.org/10.12966/abc.02.03.2015
Murayama T, Suzuki R, Kondo Y, Koshikawa M, Katsumata H, Arai K (2017) Spontaneous establishing of cross-modal stimulus equivalence in a beluga whale. Sci Rep 7(1):9914. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-09925-4
Nachtigall PE (1986) Vision, audition, and chemoreception in dolphins and other marine mammals. In: Schusterman RJ, Thomas JA, Wood FG (eds) Dolphin cognition and behavior: a comparative approach. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp 79–113
Nachtigall P, Hall RW (1984) Taste reception in the bottlenosed dolphin. Acta Zoologica Fennica 172:147–148
Nachtigall PE, Murchison AE, Au WWL (1980) Cylinder and cube shape discrimination by an echolocating blindfolded bottlenose dolphin. In: Busnel RG, Fish JF (eds) Animal sonar systems. Plenum Press, pp 945–947
Norris K, Würsig B, Wells RS (1994) The spinner dolphin. In: Norris K, Würsig B, Wells RS, Würsig M (eds) The Hawaiian spinner dolphin. University of California Press, pp 14–27
Pack AA (2015) Experimental studies of dolphin cognitive abilities. In: Herzing D, Johnson C (eds) Dolphin cognition and communication. MIT Press, pp 175–200
Pack AA (2018) Language research: dolphins. In: Vonk J, Shackelford T (eds) Encyclopedia of animal cognition and behavior. Springer International Publishing, pp 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6_1628-1
Pack AA (2019) Pointing. In: Vonk J, Shackelford T (eds) Encyclopedia of animal cognition and behavior. Springer International Publishing, pp 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6_753-1
Pack AA (2021) Dolphin social cognition. In: Kaufman AB, Call J, Kaufman JC (eds) The Cambridge handbook of animal cognition. Cambridge University Press, pp 383–414
Pack AA, Herman LM (1995) Sensory integration in the bottlenosed dolphin: immediate recognition of complex shapes across the senses of echolocation and vision. J Acoust Soc Am 98:722–733
Pack AA, Herman LM, Hoffmann-Kuhnt M, Branstetter BK (2002) The object behind the echo: dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) perceive object shape globally through echolocation. Behav Proc 58:1–26
Pack AA, Herman LM, Hoffmann-Kuhnt M (2004) Dolphin echolocation shape perception: from sound to object. In: Thomas J, Moss C, Vater M (eds) Advances in the study of echolocation in bats and dolphins. University of Chicago Press, pp 288–298
Parr LA (2004) Perceptual biases for multimodal cues in chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) affect recognition. Anim Cogn 7(3):171–178. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-004-0207-1
Partan SR (2002) Single and multichannel signal composition: facial expressions and vocalizations of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Behaviour, 139(8):993–1027. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4535968
Pitcher BJ, Briefer EF, Baciadonna L, McElligott AG (2017) Cross-modal recognition of familiar conspecifics in goats. R Soc Open Sci 4(2):160346. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.160346
Proops L, McComb K (2012) Cross-modal individual recognition in domestic horses (Equus caballus) extends to familiar humans. Proc R Soc B Lond 279:3131–3138
Proops L, McComb K, Reby D (2009) Cross-modal individual recognition in domestic horses (Equus caballus). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106:947–951
Ratcliffe V, Taylor A, Reby D (2015) Cross-modal correspondences in non-human mammal communication. Multisens Res. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134808-00002509
Ridgway SH, Carder DA, Kamolnick T, Smith RR, Schlundt CE, Elsberry WR (2001) Hearing and whistling in the deep sea: Depth Influences whistle spectra but does not attenuate hearing by white whales (Delphinapterus leucas, Odontoceti, Cetacea). J Exp Biol 204:3829–3841
Roitblat HL (1982) The meaning of representation in animal memory. Behav Brain Sci 5:353–406
Roitblat HL, Penner RH, Nachtigall PE (1990) Matching-to-sample by an echolocating dolphin. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process 16:85–95
Roitblat HL, Helweg DA, Harley HE (1995) Echolocation and imagery. In: Kastelein RA, Thomas JA, Nachtigall PE (eds) Sensory systems of aquatic mammals. De Spil Publishers, pp 171–181
Rose SA, Orlian EK (1991) Asymmetries in infant cross-modal transfer. Child Dev 62:706–718
Rose SA, Ruff HA (1987) Cross-modal abilities in human infants. In: Osofsky JD (ed) Handbook of infant development. Wiley, pp 318–362
Rossbach KA, Herzing DL (1997) Underwater observations of benthic-feeding bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) near Grand Bahama Island, Bahamas. Mar Mamm Sci 13:498–504
Ruff HA, Kohler CJ (1978) Tactual-visual transfer in six-month-old infants. Infant Behav Dev 1:259–264
Savage-Rumbaugh ES (1986) Ape language: from conditioned response to symbol. Columbia University Press
Savage-Rumbaugh ES, Rumbaugh DM, Smith ST, Lawson J (1980) Reference: the linguistic essential. Science 210(4472):922–925
Savage-Rumbaugh S, Sevcik RA, Hopkins WD (1988) Symbolic cross-modal transfer in two species of chimpanzees. Child Dev 59:617–625
Savage-Rumbaugh ES, Murphy J, Sevcik RA, Brakke KE, Williams SL, Rumbaugh DM (1993) Language comprehension in ape and child. Monogr Soc Res Child 58:1–252
Sayigh LS, Tyack PL, Wells RS, Solow AR, Scott MD, Irvine AB (1998) Individual recognition in wild bottlenose dolphins: a field test using playback experiments. Anim Behav 57:41–50
Sayigh LS, Esch HC, Wells RS, Janik VM (2007) Facts about signature whistles of bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus. Anim Behav 74:1631–1642
Sliwa J, Duhamel J, Pascalis O, Wirth S (2011) Spontaneous voice and face identity matching by rhesus monkeys for familiar conspecifics and humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci 108(4):1735–1740. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1008169108
Sokolov V, Kuznetsov VB (1971) Chemoreception in the Black Sea bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus (Montague). Dokl Akad Nauk SSSR 201:998–1000
Stein BE, Meredith MA (1993) The merging of the senses. The MIT Press
Streri A (1987) Tactile discrimination of shape and intermodal transfer in 2- to 3-month-old infants. Br J Dev Psychol 5(3):213–220. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-835X.1987.tb01056.x
Takagi S, Arahori M, Chijiiwa H, Saito A, Kuroshima H, Fujita K (2019) Cats match voice and face: cross-modal representation of humans in cats (Felis catus). Anim Cogn 22(5):901–906. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-019-01265-2
Tolan JC, Rogers CM, Malone DR (1981) Cross-modal matching in monkeys: altered visual cues and delay. Neuropsychologia 19:289–300
Tumulty JP, Sheehan MJ (2020) What drives diversity in social recognition mechanisms? [Perspective]. Front Ecol Evol. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2019.00517
Turner ML, Johnson SK, McNamara DS, Engle RW (1992) Effects of same-modality interference on immediate serial recall of auditory and visual information. J General Psychol 119(3):247–263. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309.1992.9917806
Uttley L, de Boisferon AH, Dupierrix E, Lee K, Quinn PC, Slater AM, Pascalis O (2013) Six-month-old infants match other-race faces with a non-native language. Int J Behav Dev 37(2):84–89. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025412467583
Vishnu H, Hoffmann-Kuhnt M, Chitre M, Ho A, Matrai E (2022) A dolphin-inspired compact sonar for underwater acoustic imaging. Commun Eng 1(1):10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44172-022-00010-x
Wang Z, Chen Z, Xu S, Ren W, Zhou K, Yang G (2015) ‘Obesity’ is healthy for cetaceans? Evidence from pervasive positive selection in genes related to triacylglycerol metabolism. Sci Rep 5(1):14187. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep14187
Wei C, Hoffmann-Kuhnt M, Au WWL, Hao Ho AZ, Matrai E, Feng W, Ketten DR, Zhang Y (2021) Possible limitations of dolphin echolocation: a simulation study based on a cross-modal matching experiment. Sci Rep 11:6689. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-85063-2
Acknowledgements
We thank Devon Hill for constructive comments on this manuscript. We thank Samantha Shepherd for work on acoustic analysis. Figure 3 was complied from data collected under a Marie Skłodowska-Curie Independent Fellowship of the European Commission, grant number 661214 (Jason Bruck and Vincent Janik).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
We have no known conflict of interest to disclose.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Bruck, J.N., Pack, A.A. Understanding across the senses: cross-modal studies of cognition in cetaceans. Anim Cogn 25, 1059–1075 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-022-01684-8
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-022-01684-8