Abstract
Introduction
Although neuromuscular function varies significantly between strength and endurance-trained adult athletes, it has yet to be ascertained whether such differences manifest by early adolescence. The aim of the present study was to compare knee extensor neuromuscular characteristics between adolescent athletes who are representative of strength (wrestling) or endurance (triathlon) sports.
Methods
Twenty-three triathletes (TRI), 12 wrestlers (WRE) and 12 untrained (CON) male adolescents aged 13 to 15 years participated in the present study. Maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) knee extensor (KE) torque was measured, and 100-Hz magnetic doublets were delivered to the femoral nerve during and after KE MVIC to quantify the voluntary activation level (%VA). The doublet peak torque (T100Hz) and normalized vastus lateralis (VL) and rectus femoris (RF) EMG (EMG/M-wave) activities were quantified. VL and RF muscle architecture was also assessed at rest using ultrasound.
Results
Absolute and relative (to body mass) KE MVIC torques were significantly higher in WRE than TRI and CON (p < 0.05), but comparable between TRI and CON. No significant differences were observed between groups for %VA, T100Hz or either VL or RF muscle thickness. However, VL EMG/M-wave was higher, RF fascicle length longer, and pennation angle smaller in WRE than TRI and CON (all p < 0.05).
Conclusion
The wrestlers were stronger than triathletes and controls, potentially as a result of muscle architectural differences and a greater neural activation. Neuromuscular differences can already be detected by early adolescence in males between predominantly endurance and strength sports, which may result from selection bias and/or physical training.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Abbreviations
- BM:
-
Body mass
- CON:
-
Controls
- EMG/M-wave:
-
EMG normalized to maximal peak-to-peak M-wave amplitude
- FL:
-
Fascicle length
- KE:
-
Knee extensors
- KF:
-
Knee flexors
- ML:
-
Muscle length
- MO:
-
Maturity offset
- MT:
-
Muscle thickness
- MVCCON :
-
Maximal voluntary contraction during concentric contraction
- MVCECC :
-
Maximal voluntary contraction during eccentric contraction
- MVIC:
-
Maximum voluntary isometric contraction
- M max :
-
Maximal peak-to-peak M-wave amplitude
- PA:
-
Pennation angle
- RF:
-
Rectus femoris
- T 10Hz :
-
Peak twitch amplitude evoked by the 10-Hz doublets
- T 100Hz :
-
Peak twitch amplitude evoked by the 100-Hz doublets
- TRI:
-
Triathletes
- VAL:
-
Voluntary activation level
- VL:
-
Vastus lateralis
- WRE:
-
Wrestlers
References
Aagaard P, Simonsen EB, Magnusson SP, Larsson B, Dyhre-Poulsen P (1998) A new concept for isokinetic hamstring: quadriceps muscle strength ratio. Am J Sports Med 26(2):231–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/03635465980260021201
Abe T, Kumagai K, Brechue WF (2000) Fascicle length of leg muscles is greater in sprinters than distance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 32(6):1125–1129. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200006000-00014
Basar S, Duzgun I, Guzel NA, Cicioglu I, Celik B (2014) Differences in strength, flexibility and stability in freestyle and greco-roman wrestlers. J Back Musculoskelet Rehabil 27(3):321–330. https://doi.org/10.3233/BMR-130451
Beattie K, Kenny IC, Lyons M, Carson BP (2014) The effect of strength training on performance in endurance athletes. Sports Med 44(6):845–865. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-014-0157-y
Behm DG, St-Pierre DM, Perez D (1996) Muscle inactivation: assessment of interpolated twitch technique. J Appl Physiol (1985) 81(5):2267–2273. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1996.81.5.2267
Behm DG, Faigenbaum AD, Falk B, Klentrou P (2008) Canadian society for exercise physiology position paper: resistance training in children and adolescents. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 33(3):547–561. https://doi.org/10.1139/H08-020
Binzoni T, Bianchi S, Hanquinet S, Kaelin A, Sayegh Y, Dumont M, Jequier S (2001) Human gastrocnemius medialis pennation angle as a function of age: from newborn to the elderly. J Physiol Anthropol Appl Human Sci 20(5):293–298. https://doi.org/10.2114/jpa.20.293
Blazevich AJ (2006) Effects of physical training and detraining, immobilisation, growth and aging on human fascicle geometry. Sports Med 36(12):1003–1017. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200636120-00002
Blazevich AJ, Cannavan D, Coleman DR, Horne S (2007) Influence of concentric and eccentric resistance training on architectural adaptation in human quadriceps muscles. J Appl Physiol (1985) 103(5):1565–1575. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00578.2007
Blimkie CJ (1992) Resistance training during pre- and early puberty: efficacy, trainability, mechanisms, and persistence. Can J Sport Sci 17(4):264–279
Burke D (2002) Effects of activity on axonal excitability: implications for motor control studies. Adv Exp Med Biol 508:33–37. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-0713-0_5
Burkholder TJ (2001) Age does not influence muscle fiber length adaptation to increased excursion. J Appl Physiol (1985) 91(6):2466–2470. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.2001.91.6.2466
Butterfield TA, Herzog W (2006) The magnitude of muscle strain does not influence serial sarcomere number adaptations following eccentric exercise. Pflugers Arch 451(5):688–700. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00424-005-1503-6
Camic CL, Housh TJ, Weir JP, Zuniga JM, Hendrix CR, Mielke M, Johnson GO, Housh DJ, Schmidt RJ (2010) Influences of body-size variables on age-related increases in isokinetic peak torque in young wrestlers. J Strength Cond Res 24(9):2358–2365. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181aff2a2
Cohen D (1969) Statistical power analysis for behavioral sciences. Academic Press, New York
Cohen R, Mitchell C, Dotan R, Gabriel D, Klentrou P, Falk B (2010) Do neuromuscular adaptations occur in endurance-trained boys and men? Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 35(4):471–479. https://doi.org/10.1139/H10-031
De Siati F, Laffaye G, Gatta G, Dello Iacono A, Ardigo LP, Padulo J (2016) Neuromuscular and technical abilities related to age in water-polo players. J Sports Sci 34(15):1466–1472. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2015.1119298
DeJong Lempke AF, Willwerth SB, Hunt DL, Meehan WP 3rd, Whitney KE (2023) Adolescent marathon training: prospective evaluation of musculotendinous changes during a 6-month endurance running program. J Ultrasound Med 42(5):977–987. https://doi.org/10.1002/jum.16105
Delextrat A, Gregory J, Cohen D (2010) The use of the functional H: Q ratio to assess fatigue in soccer. Int J Sports Med 31(3):192–197. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0029-1243642
Eriksson BO, Gollnick PD, Saltin B (1973) Muscle metabolism and enzyme activities after training in boys 11–13 years old. Acta Physiol Scand 87(4):485–497. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1716.1973.tb05415.x
Faigenbaum AD, Kraemer WJ, Blimkie CJ, Jeffreys I, Micheli LJ, Nitka M, Rowland TW (2009) Youth resistance training: updated position statement paper from the national strength and conditioning association. J Strength Cond Res 23(5 Suppl):S60-79. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e31819df407
Foehring RC, Sypert GW, Munson JB (1988) Relation of whole muscle contractile properties to source of innervation. Exp Neurol 101(3):366–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-4886(88)90048-9
Hermens HJ, Freriks B, Disselhorst-Klug C, Rau G (2000) Development of recommendations for SEMG sensors and sensor placement procedures. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 10(5):361–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1050-6411(00)00027-4
Herzog W, Guimaraes AC, Anton MG, Carter-Erdman KA (1991) Moment-length relations of rectus femoris muscles of speed skaters/cyclists and runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 23(11):1289–1296
Hinks A, Franchi MV, Power GA (2022) The influence of longitudinal muscle fascicle growth on mechanical function. J Appl Physiol (1985) 133(1):87–103. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00114.2022
Housh TJ, Johnson GO, Hughes RA, Housh DJ, Hughes RJ, Fry AS, Kenney KB, Cisar CJ (1989) Isokinetic strength and body composition of high school wrestlers across age. Med Sci Sports Exerc 21(1):105–109. https://doi.org/10.1249/00005768-198902000-00019
Karamanidis K, Arampatzis A (2006) Mechanical and morphological properties of human quadriceps femoris and triceps surae muscle-tendon unit in relation to aging and running. J Biomech 39(3):406–417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiomech.2004.12.017
Kellis E, Katis A (2007) Quantification of functional knee flexor to extensor moment ratio using isokinetics and electromyography. J Athl Train 42(4):477–485
Kellis E, Mademli L, Patikas D, Kofotolis N (2014) Neuromuscular interactions around the knee in children, adults and elderly. World J Orthop 5(4):469–485. https://doi.org/10.5312/wjo.v5.i4.469
Kellis E, Sahinis C, Baltzopoulos V (2023) Is hamstrings-to-quadriceps torque ratio useful for predicting anterior cruciate ligament and hamstring injuries? A systematic and critical review. J Sport Health Sci 12(3):343–358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2022.01.002
Kluka V, Martin V, Vicencio SG, Jegu AG, Cardenoux C, Morio C, Coudeyre E, Ratel S (2015) Effect of muscle length on voluntary activation level in children and adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc 47(4):718–724. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000000463
Koh TJ, Herzog W (1998) Excursion is important in regulating sarcomere number in the growing rabbit tibialis anterior. J Physiol 508(Pt 1):267–280. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7793.1998.267br.x
Kunimasa Y, Sano K, Oda T, Nicol C, Komi PV, Ishikawa M (2022) Muscle-tendon architecture in Kenyans and Japanese: potential role of genetic endowment in the success of elite Kenyan endurance runners. Acta Physiol (oxf) 235(2):e13821. https://doi.org/10.1111/apha.13821
Kunimasa Y, Sano K, Nicol C, Barthelemy J, Ishikawa M (2023) Is the muscle-tendon architecture of non-athletic Kenyans different from that of Japanese and French males? J Physiol Anthropol 42(1):9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40101-023-00326-3
Lattier G, Millet GY, Maffiuletti NA, Babault N, Lepers R (2003) Neuromuscular differences between endurance-trained, power-trained, and sedentary subjects. J Strength Cond Res 17(3):514–521. https://doi.org/10.1519/1533-4287(2003)017%3c0514:ndbepa%3e2.0.co;2
McQuilliam SJ, Clark DR, Erskine RM, Brownlee TE (2020) Free-weight resistance training in youth athletes: a narrative review. Sports Med 50(9):1567–1580. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-020-01307-7
Mero A, Jaakkola L, Komi PV (1991) Relationships between muscle fibre characteristics and physical performance capacity in trained athletic boys. J Sports Sci 9(2):161–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640419108729877
Merton PA (1954) Voluntary strength and fatigue. J Physiol 123(3):553–564. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.1954.sp005070
Mirwald RL, Baxter-Jones AD, Bailey DA, Beunen GP (2002) An assessment of maturity from anthropometric measurements. Med Sci Sports Exerc 34(4):689–694. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200204000-00020
Murach K, Greever C, Luden ND (2015) Skeletal muscle architectural adaptations to marathon run training. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 40(1):99–102. https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2014-0287
Narici MV, Binzoni T, Hiltbrand E, Fasel J, Terrier F, Cerretelli P (1996) In vivo human gastrocnemius architecture with changing joint angle at rest and during graded isometric contraction. J Physiol 496(Pt 1):287–297. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.1996.sp021685
Piskin IE, Gumus M, Bayraktaroglu T, Akalin TC, Yamaner F (2018) Growth and pubertal development in adolescent male wrestlers. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 58(6):852–856. https://doi.org/10.23736/S0022-4707.17.07269-3
Pullinen T, Mero A, Huttunen P, Pakarinen A, Komi PV (2002) Resistance exercise-induced hormonal responses in men, women, and pubescent boys. Med Sci Sports Exerc 34(5):806–813. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200205000-00013
Ramsay JA, Blimkie CJ, Smith K, Garner S, MacDougall JD, Sale DG (1990) Strength training effects in prepubescent boys. Med Sci Sports Exerc 22(5):605–614. https://doi.org/10.1249/00005768-199010000-00011
Ratel S, Kluka V, Vicencio SG, Jegu AG, Cardenoux C, Morio C, Coudeyre E, Martin V (2015) Insights into the mechanisms of neuromuscular fatigue in boys and men. Med Sci Sports Exerc 47(11):2319–2328. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000000697
Rice CL, Cunningham DA, Taylor AW, Paterson DH (1988) Comparison of the histochemical and contractile properties of human triceps surae. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 58(1–2):165–170. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00636621
Zakas A, Mandroukas K, Karamouzis G, Panagiotopoulou G (1994) Physical training, growth hormone and testosterone levels and blood pressure in prepubertal, pubertal and adolescent boys. Scand J Med Sci Sports 4(4):113–118
Zempo H, Miyamoto-Mikami E, Kikuchi N, Fuku N, Miyachi M, Murakami H (2017) Heritability estimates of muscle strength-related phenotypes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Scand J Med Sci Sports 27(12):1537–1546. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12804
Zghal F, Martin V, Thorkani A, Arnal PJ, Tabka Z, Cottin F (2014) Effects of endurance training on the maximal voluntary activation level of the knee extensor muscles. Eur J Appl Physiol 114(4):683–693. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-013-2793-6
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the participants for their patience, time and effort.
Funding
The authors have no funding sources to declare.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
YMG, AB and SR designed the research. BT, YMG, AB, CVR, MR, CM, SN and SR collected the data and performed the research. BT, YMG, AB, EE and SR analysed the data and supervised the research. BT, EE and SR wrote the manuscript. BT, ACMS, AJB, KN, RSP and SR provided critical revisions important for intellectual content of the finished manuscript. All the authors approved the final version of the manuscript, and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved. All persons designated as authors qualify for authorship, and all those who qualify for authorship are listed.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests. The results of the study are presented clearly, honestly and without fabrication, falsification or inappropriate data manipulation.
Ethical approval
The present study was approved by an Institutional Ethics Review Board (Protection Committee of People for Biomedical Research, Ile de France IV, n° 2020-A00672-37) and was conducted in conformity with the policy statement regarding the use of human subjects as outlined in the sixth Declaration of Helsinki.
Consent to participate
Written informed consent was obtained from all individual included in the study and from their parents or legal guardians.
Consent for publication
Participants (and their parents or legal guardians) signed informed consent regarding publishing their data.
Additional information
Communicated by Philip D. Chilibeck.
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Tarrit, B., Garnier, Y.M., Birat, A. et al. Can neuromuscular differences manifest by early adolescence in males between predominantly endurance and strength sports?. Eur J Appl Physiol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-024-05480-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-024-05480-9