Abstract
In this study, the occurrence of phthalates in the municipal water supply of Nagpur City, India, was studied for the first time. The study aimed to provide insights into the extent of phthalate contamination and identify potential sources of contamination in the city’s tap water. We analyzed fifteen phthalates and the total concentration (∑15phthalates) ranged from 0.27 to 76.36 µg L−1. Prominent phthalates identified were di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), di-isobutyl phthalate (DIBP), benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP), di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), di-n-octyl phthalate (DNOP), and di-nonyl phthalate (DNP). Out of the fifteen phthalates analyzed, DEHP showed the highest concentration in all the samples with the median concentration of 2.27 µg L−1, 1.39 µg L−1, 1.83 µg L−1, 2.02 µg L−1, respectively in Butibori, Gandhibaag, Civil Lines, and Kalmeshwar areas of the city. In 30% of the tap water samples, DEHP was found higher than the EPA maximum contaminant level of 6 µg L−1. The average daily intake (ADI) of phthalates via consumption of tap water was higher for adults (median: 0.25 µg kg−1 day−1) compared to children (median: 0.07 µg kg−1 day−1). The hazard index (HI) calculated for both adults and children was below the threshold level, indicating no significant health risks from chronic toxic risk. However, the maximum carcinogenic risk (CR) for adults (8.44 × 10–3) and children (7.73 × 10–3) was higher than the threshold level. Knowledge of the sources and distribution of phthalate contamination in municipal drinking water is crucial for effective contamination control and management strategies.
Graphical Abstract
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abedi Sarvestani R, Aghasi M (2019) Health risk assessment of heavy metals exposure (lead, cadmium, and copper) through drinking water consumption in Kerman city, Iran. Environ Earth Sci 78:714. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-019-8723-0
Abtahi M, Dobaradaran S, Torabbeigi M et al (2019) Health risk of phthalates in water environment: occurrence in water resources, bottled water, and tap water, and burden of disease from exposure through drinking water in tehran, Iran. Environ Res 173:469–479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2019.03.071
Ai S, Wang X, Gao X et al (2023) Distribution, health risk assessment, and water quality criteria of phthalate esters in Poyang Lake, China. Environ Sci Europe 35:1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-022-00702-3
Bach C, Rosin C, Munoz J-F, Dauchy X (2020) National screening study investigating nine phthalates and one adipate in raw and treated tap water in France. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27:36476–36486. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09680-6
Bao J, Wang M, Ning X et al (2015) Phthalate concentrations in personal care products and the cumulative exposure to female adults and infants in Shanghai. J Toxicol Environ Health A 78:325–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/15287394.2014.968696
Brusseau ML, Ramirez-Andreotta M, Pepper IL, Maximillian J (2019) Chapter 26: Environmental impacts on human health and well-being. In: Brusseau ML, Pepper IL, Gerba CP (eds) Environmental and pollution science, 3rd edn. Academic Press, Cambridge, pp 477–499
Cao J (2021) Semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs). In: Zhang Y, Hopke PK, Mandin C (eds) Handbook of indoor air quality. Springer, Singapore, pp 1–29
Cao Y, Xu S, Zhang K et al (2022) Spatiotemporal occurrence of phthalate esters in stormwater drains of Hong Kong, China: mass loading and source identification. Environ Pollut 308:119683. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119683
Chakraborti D, Das B, Murrill MT (2011) Examining India’s groundwater quality management. Environ Sci Technol 45:27–33. https://doi.org/10.1021/es101695d
Chen Y, Chen Q, Zhang Q et al (2022) An overview of chemical additives on (micro)plastic fibers: occurrence, release, and health risks. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 260:22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44169-022-00023-9
Choi KJ, Kim SG, Kim CW, Park JK (2006) Removal efficiencies of endocrine disrupting chemicals by coagulation/flocculation, ozonation, powdered/granular activated carbon adsorption, and chlorination. Korean J Chem Eng 23:399–408. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02706741
Cui D, Ricardo M, Quinete N (2022) A novel report on phthalates levels in Biscayne Bay surface waters and drinking water from South Florida. Mar Pollut Bull 180:113802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.113802
Das MT, Ghosh P, Thakur IS (2014) Intake estimates of phthalate esters for South Delhi population based on exposure media assessment. Environ Pollut 189:118–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2014.02.021
Ding J, Shen X, Liu W et al (2015) Occurrence and risk assessment of organophosphate esters in drinking water from Eastern China. Sci Total Environ 538:959–965. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.08.101
Domínguez-Morueco N, González-Alonso S, Valcárcel Y (2014) Phthalate occurrence in rivers and tap water from central Spain. Sci Total Environ 500–501:139–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.08.098
Eastman Chemical Company, Tennessee, USA. https://www.eastman.com/Brands/Eastman_plasticizers/products/Pages/ProductListGeneral.aspx. Accessed on 28 Jul 2023
Edjere O, Pollard P, Maier U (2016) Trace determination of phthalates in ground water samples by GC-MS using specific sample concentration techniques. J Emerg Trends Eng Appl Sci 7(3):128–132
Epa US (2019) Update for chapter 3 of the exposure factors handbook: ingestion of the water and other selected liquids, Washington, DC. J Chem Inf Model 53:1689–1699
European Union (2013) Directive 2013/11/EU of the European parliament and of the council. fundamental texts on European private law 1–17. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781782258674.0032
Gbadamosi MR, Abdallah MAE, Harrad S (2021) A critical review of human exposure to organophosphate esters with a focus on dietary intake. Sci Total Environ 771:144752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144752
Henkel C, Hüffer T, Hofmann T (2022) Polyvinyl chloride microplastics leach phthalates into the aquatic environment over decades. Environ Sci Technol 56:14507–14516. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c05108
Indian Standard 10500, Drinking water—specification (2012), Bureau of Indian Standards Manak Bhavan, 9 Bahadur Shahzafer Marg, New Delhi. https://cpcb.nic.in/wqm/BIS_Drinking_Water_Specification.pdf
International Agency for Research on Cancer (2013) Lyon, France. https://monographs.iarc.who.int/list-of-classifications. Accessed 21 Aug 2023
Jeon S, Kim K-T, Choi K (2016) Migration of DEHP and DINP into dust from PVC flooring products at different surface temperature. Sci Total Environ 547:441–446. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.12.135
Ji Y, Wang F, Zhang L et al (2014) A comprehensive assessment of human exposure to phthalates from environmental media and food in Tianjin, China. J Hazard Mater 279:133–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.06.055
Jian Y, Yunting X, Xianghong T et al (2022) Endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) in source water, finished water, and tap water from drinking water treatment plants and its human risk assessment in Chengdu Plain, China. Hum Ecol Risk Assess Int J 28:862–877. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2022.2105195
Kashyap D, Agarwal T (2018) Concentration and factors affecting the distribution of phthalates in the air and dust: a global scenario. Sci Total Environ 635:817–827. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.04.158
Kawahara FK, Hodgeson JWH (1995) Method 506; Determination of phthalate and adipate esters in drinking water by liquid–liquid extraction or liquid–solid extraction and gas chromatography with photoionization detection. National Exposure Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, US Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA. 45268 0, pp 1–27
Kong M, Song Y, Zhang Y et al (2015) Fate of phthalate esters in municipal wastewater treatment plant and their environmental impact. Water Sci Technol 73:1395–1400. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2015.613
Kong Y, Shen J, Chen Z et al (2017) Profiles and risk assessment of phthalate acid esters (PAEs) in drinking water sources and treatment plants, East China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24:23646–23657. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9783-x
Kumawat M, Sharma P, Pal N et al (2022) Occurrence and seasonal disparity of emerging endocrine disrupting chemicals in a drinking water supply system and associated health risk. Sci Rep 12:9252. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-13489-3
Le TM, Nguyen HMN, Nguyen VK et al (2021) Profiles of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) in bottled water, tap water, lake water, and wastewater samples collected from Hanoi, Vietnam. Sci Total Environ 788:147831. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147831
Legler J, Fletcher T, Govarts E et al (2015) Obesity, diabetes, and associated costs of exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals in the European Union. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 100:1278–1288. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2014-4326
Lim J-E, Liao C, Moon H-B (2023) Occurrence and exposure assessment of bisphenol analogues through different types of drinking water in Korea. Expo Health 15:185–197. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-022-00483-3
Liu H, Feng S, Du X et al (2011) Comparison of three sorbents for organic pollutant removal in drinking water. Energy Procedia 5:985–990. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2011.03.174
Liu X, Shi J, Bo T et al (2014) Occurrence of phthalic acid esters in source waters: a nationwide survey in China during the period of 2009–2012. Environ Pollut 184:262–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.08.035
Liu X, Shi J, Bo T et al (2015) Occurrence and risk assessment of selected phthalates in drinking water from waterworks in China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 22:10690–10698. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4253-9
Liu S, Gunawan C, Barraud N et al (2016) Understanding, monitoring, and controlling biofilm growth in drinking water distribution systems. Environ Sci Technol 50:8954–8976. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b00835
Liu Q, Xu X, Lin L et al (2021) Occurrence, health risk assessment and regional impact of parent, halogenated and oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in tap water. J Hazard Mater 413:125360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125360
Luo Q, Liu Z, Yin H et al (2018) Migration and potential risk of trace phthalates in bottled water: a global situation. Water Res 147:362–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2018.10.002
Maharashtra Pollution Control Board (2019), Mumbai: Report on action plan for clean-up of polluted stretch of Kanhan river. https://www.mpcb.gov.in/sites/default/files/river-polluted/action-plan-priority/Action_plans_priority_III_KANHAN_2019_03072019.pdf
Mak YL, Taniyasu S, Yeung LWY et al (2009) Perfluorinated compounds in tap water from China and several other countries. Environ Sci Technol 43:4824–4829. https://doi.org/10.1021/es900637a
Mishra S, Kumar P, Mehrotra I, Kumar M (2023) Prevalence of organic micropollutants in the Yamuna River, Delhi, India: seasonal variations and governing factors. Sci Total Environ 858:159684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159684
Moe CL, Rheingans RD (2006) Global challenges in water, sanitation and health. J Water Health 4:41–57. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2006.0043
Mohammadi A, Dobaradaran S, Schmidt TC et al (2022) Emerging contaminants migration from pipes used in drinking water distribution systems: a review of the scientific literature. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29:75134–75160. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-23085-7
Morin-Crini N, Lichtfouse E, Liu G, Balaram V, Ribeiro ARL, Lu Z et al (2022) Worldwide cases of water pollution by emerging contaminants: a review. Environ Chem Lett 20(4):2311–2338. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-022-01447-4
Murat P, Ferret P-J, Coslédan S, Simon V (2019) Assessment of targeted non-intentionally added substances in cosmetics in contact with plastic packagings. Analytical and toxicological aspects. Food Chem Toxicol 128:106–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2019.03.030
Nagorka R, Birmili W, Schulze J, Koschorreck J (2022) Diverging trends of plasticizers (phthalates and non-phthalates) in indoor and freshwater environments—why? Environ Sci Eur 34:46. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-022-00620-4
Neves RAF, Miralha A, Guimarães TB et al (2023) Phthalates contamination in the coastal and marine sediments of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Mar Pollut Bull 190:114819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.114819
Núñez M, Fontanals N, Borrull F, Marcé RM (2022) Multiresidue analytical method for high production volume chemicals in dust samples, occurrence and human exposure assessment. Chemosphere 301:134639. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134639
Otero P, Saha SK, Moane S et al (2015) Improved method for rapid detection of phthalates in bottled water by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B 997:229–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchromb.2015.05.036
Paluselli A, Kim S-K (2020) Horizontal and vertical distribution of phthalates acid ester (PAEs) in seawater and sediment of East China Sea and Korean South Sea: traces of plastic debris? Mar Pollut Bull 151:110831. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.110831
Pang X, Skillen N, Gunaratne N et al (2021) Removal of phthalates from aqueous solution by semiconductor photocatalysis: a review. J Hazard Mater 402:123461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123461
Rolland M, Lyon-Caen S, Thomsen C et al (2023) Effects of early exposure to phthalates on cognitive development and visual behavior at 24 months. Environ Res 219:115068. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.115068
Santana J, Giraudi C, Marengo E et al (2014) Preliminary toxicological assessment of phthalate esters from drinking water consumed in Portugal. Environ Sci Pollut Res 21:1380–1390. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-013-2020-3
Selvaraj KK, Sundaramoorthy G, Ravichandran PK et al (2015) Phthalate esters in water and sediments of the Kaveri River, India: environmental levels and ecotoxicological evaluations. Environ Geochem Health 37:83–96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-014-9632-5
Sharma S, Bhattacharya A (2017) Drinking water contamination and treatment techniques. Appl Water Sci 7:1043–1067. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-016-0455-7
Stoler J (2017) From curiosity to commodity: a review of the evolution of sachet drinking water in West Africa. Wires Water 4:e1206. https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1206
Thacharodi A, Hassan S, Acharya G et al (2023) Endocrine disrupting chemicals and their effects on the reproductive health in men. Environ Res 236:116825. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2023.116825
Tijani JO, Fatoba OO, Babajide OO, Petrik LF (2016) Pharmaceuticals, endocrine disruptors, personal care products, nanomaterials and perfluorinated pollutants: a review. Environ Chem Lett 14:27–49. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-015-0537-z
Tran TM, Le HT, Minh TB, Kannan K (2017) Occurrence of phthalate diesters in indoor air from several Northern cities in Vietnam, and its implication for human exposure. Sci Total Environ 601–602:1695–1701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.06.016
Trasande L, Liu B, Bao W (2022) Phthalates and attributable mortality: a population-based longitudinal cohort study and cost analysis. Environ Pollut 292:118021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118021
U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Phthalates in cosmetics (2022). https://www.fda.gov/cosmetics/cosmetic-ingredients/phthalates-cosmetics
US EPA (2014) EPA’s priority pollutant list.Washington, DC. https://wwwEpaGov/Sites/Production/Files/2015-09/Documents/Priority-Pollutant-List-Epa.pdf. 77:249
USEPA (1984) Method 606: Phthalate Ester; Methods for organic chemical analysis of muncipal and industrial wastewater, Washington, DC. https://archive.epa.gov/region5/teach/web/pdf/phthalates_summary.pdf
USEPA (1988) Integrated risk information system: Di (2- ethylhexyl) phthalate. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. https://iris.epa.gov/ChemicalLanding/&substance_nmbr=14. Accessed 21 Aug 2023
USEPA (2002) Provisional peer reviewed toxicity values for butyl benzyl phthalate, superfund health risk, Technical Support Center National Center for Environmental Assessment Office of Research and Development,U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati. https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/pprtv/documents/Butylbenzylphthalate.pdf.
USEPA (2006) Toxicity and exposure assessment for children’s health, Phthalates TEACH Chemical Summary, Washington, DC. 3, pp 10–27. https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwiUgqSuyOSEAxU4VWwGHeoyCL0QFnoECBUQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fnepis.epa.gov%2FExe%2FZyPURL.cgi%3FDockey%3DP100BNSK.TXT&usg=AOvVaw0AJo-6UhMv8050ykFWdTJC&opi=89978449
USEPA (2015) National recommended water quality criteria – human health criteria table, Washington, DC. https://www.epa.gov/wqc/national-recommended-water-quality-criteria-human-health-criteria-table
Wakayama H (2004) Revision of drinking water quality standards in Japan; Office of Drinking Water Quality Management Water Supply Division, Health Service Bureau, Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Tokyo, Japan
Wang C, Huang P, Qiu C et al (2021a) Occurrence, migration and health risk of phthalates in tap water, barreled water and bottled water in Tianjin, China. J Hazard Mater 408:124891. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124891
Wang Y, Wang F, Xiang L et al (2021b) Risk assessment of agricultural plastic films based on release kinetics of phthalate acid esters. Environ Sci Technol 55:3676–3685. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c07008
Wang Y, Zhang Z, Bao M et al (2021c) Characteristics and risk assessment of organophosphate esters and phthalates in soils and vegetation from Dalian, northeast China. Environ Pollut 284:117532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117532
Wang L, Li J, Zheng J et al (2022) Source tracing and health risk assessment of phthalate esters in household tap-water: a case study of the urban area of Quanzhou, Southeast China. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 248:114277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.114277
Weizhen Z, Xiaowei Z, Peng G et al (2020) Distribution and risk assessment of phthalates in water and sediment of the Pearl River Delta. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27:12550–12565. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-06819-y
World Health Organization (2003) Guidlines for drinking water quality-fourth edition, 361–362, Geneva. https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/wash-documents/wash-chemicals/di-2-ethylhexyl-phthalate-chemical-fact-sheet.pdf?sfvrsn=6dc6b738_4.
Wu X, Hong H, Liu X et al (2013) Graphene-dispersive solid-phase extraction of phthalate acid esters from environmental water. Sci Total Environ 444:224–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.11.060
Xie H, Han W, Xie Q et al (2022) Face mask—a potential source of phthalate exposure for human. J Hazard Mater. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.126848
Yang Y, Song L, Zhu Z et al (2022) Human exposure to phthalate esters via ingestion of municipal drinking water from automatic water purifiers: levels, sources, and risks. Environ Sci Water Res Technol 8:2843–2855. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2EW00535B
Ye X, Wang P, Wu Y et al (2020) Microplastic acts as a vector for contaminants: the release behavior of dibutyl phthalate from polyvinyl chloride pipe fragments in water phase. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27:42082–42091. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10136-0
Yue X, Wang Y, Zhou Q et al (2022) Phthalates in soil and road dust from a large processing trade center of children’s clothing: occurrence, profiles and potential health risks. Process Saf Environ Prot 162:291–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2022.04.031
Zhang L, Ren R, He H, Liu S (2023) Assessing human exposure to phthalate esters in drinking water migrated from various pipe materials and water filter elements during water treatments and storage. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30:47832–47843. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-25633-1
Acknowledgements
The first author, Nandini Shende, acknowledges the University Grants Commission (UGC), New Delhi, Government of India, for the generous Research Fellowship support. Additionally, the study acknowledges the valuable resources and funding provided by CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur, India. KRC No. CSIR-NEERI/KRC/2023/AUG/EMD-CHWMD/1
Funding
We acknowledge the funding support from CSIR-NEERI, Nagpur, India to carry out this research work.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Nandini Shende: Conceptualization, formal analysis, Experiment, writing original draft, writing review and editing; Ishan Singh: Writing review and editing, formal analysis; Asirvatham Ramesh Kumar: Conceptualization, resources, writing review and editing, formal analysis; Girivvankatesh Hippargi: Conceptualization, formal analysis, writing review and editing.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Shende, N., Singh, I., Hippargi, G. et al. Occurrence and Health Risk Assessment of Phthalates in Municipal Drinking Water Supply of a Central Indian City. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 86, 288–303 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-024-01061-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-024-01061-1