Abstract
The goal of this study was to determine the potential exposure of much of the French population to nine phthalates and bis (2-ethylhexyl) adipate (DEHA) due to water consumption. The occurrence of these compounds was investigated in raw and treated water from public water systems. Water samples were collected in one sampling campaign equally distributed across 101 French départements (a French administrative unit) from November 2015 to July 2016. In all, 271 raw water samples and 283 treated water samples were collected. A specific sampling protocol was conducted in order to assess phthalate pollution during sampling and analysis, and to produce reliable results. Field blanks were thus collected at the same time as real samples at each sampling point. The contamination detected in field blanks was due to diethyl phthalate (DEP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP), and di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), which are common phthalate interferences in blanks. Their concentrations were never ten times higher than the limits of quantification (LOQ). In tap water, the most frequently detected compound was DBP, at a maximum concentration of 1300 ng/L. In raw water, however, DEP was the most frequently detected analyte with concentrations ranging from 255 to 406 ng/L, while DIBP was observed at a maximum concentration of 1650 ng/L. It is worth mentioning that DEHP—the most widely used phthalate—was only detected in one sample of raw water. Phthalates are not concentrated in any particular area of France in either raw or treated water.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abtahi M, Dobaradaran S, Torabbeigi M, Jorfi S, Gholamnia R, Koolivand A, Darabi H, Kavousi A, Saeedi R (2019) Health risk of phthalates in water environment: occurrence in water resources, bottled water, and tap water, and burden of disease from exposure through drinking water in Tehran, Iran. Environ Res 173:469–479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2019.03.071
Boas M, Feldt-Rasmussen U, Main KM (2012) Thyroid effects of endocrine disrupting chemicals. Mol Cell Endocrinol 355:240–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2011.09.005
Bono-Blay F, Guart A, de la Fuente B, Pedemonte M, Pastor MC, Borrell A, Lacorte S (2012) Survey of phthalates, alkylphenols, bisphenol A and herbicides in Spanish source waters intended for bottling. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 19:3339–3349. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-012-0851-y
Cai Y, Jiang G, Liu J (2003) Solid-phase extraction of several phthalate esters from environmental water samples on a column packed with polytetrafluoroethylene turnings. Anal Sci 19:1491–1494
Caldwell JC (2012) DEHP: genotoxicity and potential carcinogenic mechanisms-a review. Mutat Res 751:82–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mrrev.2012.03.001
Capdeville MJ, Budzinski H (2011) Trace-level analysis of organic contaminants in drinking waters and groundwaters. TrAC Trends Anal Chem 30:586–606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2010.12.006
Chen X, Xu S, Tan T, Lee S, Cheng S, Lee F, Xu S, Ho K (2014) Toxicity and estrogenic endocrine disrupting activity of phthalates and their mixtures. Int J Environ Res Public Health 11:3156–3168. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110303156
Dévier M-H, Le Menach K, Viglino L, Di Gioia L, Lachassagne P, Budzinski H (2013) Ultra-trace analysis of hormones, pharmaceutical substances, alkylphenols and phthalates in two French natural mineral waters. Sci Total Environ 443:621–632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.10.015
Directive (2000/60/CE) DU PARLEMENT EUROPÉEN ET DU CONSEIL du 23 octobre établissant un cadre pour une politique communautaire dans le domaine de l’eau. Journal Officiel de l’Union Européenne, 2000
Domínguez-Morueco N, González-Alonso S, Valcárcel Y (2014) Phthalate occurrence in rivers and tap water from central Spain. Sci Total Environ 500–501:139–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.08.098
EPA (2009) https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-06/documents/blanks.pdf
Fankhauser-Noti A, Grob K (2007) Blank problems in trace analysis of diethylhexyl and dibutyl phthalate: investigation of the sources, tips and tricks. Anal Chim Acta 582:353–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2006.09.012
Fasano EB-BF, Cirillo T, Montuori P, Lacorte S (2012) Migration of phthalates, alkylphenols, bisphenol A and di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate from food packaging. Food Control 27:132–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2012.03.005
Furtmann K (1994) Phthalates in surface water - a method for routine trace level analysis. Fresenius J Anal Chem 348:291–296. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00324037
Gou Y-Y, Lin S, Que DE, Tayo LL, Lin DY, Chen KC, Chen FA, Chiang PC, Wang GS, Hsu YC, Chuang KP, Chuang CY, Tsou TC, Chao HR (2016) Estrogenic effects in the influents and effluents of the drinking water treatment plants. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23:8518–8528. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5946-9
Guart A, Bono-Blay F, Borrell A, Lacorte S (2011) Migration of plasticizers phthalates, bisphenol A and alkylphenols from plastic containers and evaluation of risk. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A 28:676–685. https://doi.org/10.1080/19440049.2011.555845
Guart A, Bono-Blay F, Borrell A, Lacorte S (2014) Effect of bottling and storage on the migration of plastic constituents in Spanish bottled waters. Food Chem 156:73–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.01.075
Hauser R, Calafat AM (2005) Phthalates and human health. Occup Environ Med 62:806–818. https://doi.org/10.1136/oem.2004.017590
Hu X, Shi W, Wei S, Zhang X, Feng J, Hu G, Chen S, Giesy JP, Yu H (2013) Occurrence and potential causes of androgenic activities in source and drinking water in China. Environ Sci Technol 47:10591–10600. https://doi.org/10.1021/es401464p
INERIS (2009) Report DRC-09-95687-06768B on the Interlaboratory study on the water framework Directive priority substance - phthalates. Institut National de L’Environment Industriel et des Risques,
Jarfelt K, Dalgaard M, Hass U, Borch J, Jacobsen H, Ladefoged O (2005) Antiandrogenic effects in male rats perinatally exposed to a mixture of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate. Reprod Toxicol 19:505–515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.reprotox.2004.11.005
Kong Y, Shen J, Chen Z, Kang J, Li T, Wu X, Kong XZ, Fan L (2017) Profiles and risk assessment of phthalate acid esters (PAEs) in drinking water sources and treatment plants, East China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24:23646–23657. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9783-x
Lee Y-M, Lee JE, Choe W, Kim T, Lee JY, Kho Y, Choi K, Zoh KD (2019) Distribution of phthalate esters in air, water, sediments, and fish in the Asan Lake of Korea. Environ Int 126:635–643. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.02.059
Liou S-H, Yang GCC, Wang C-L, Chiu Y-H (2014) Monitoring of PAEMs and beta-agonists in urine for a small group of experimental subjects and PAEs and beta-agonists in drinking water consumed by the same subjects. J Hazard Mater 277:169–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.02.024
Liu X, Shi J, Bo T, Zhang H, Wu W, Chen Q, Zhan X (2014) Occurrence of phthalic acid esters in source waters: a nationwide survey in China during the period of 2009-2012. Environ Pollut 184:262–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.08.035
Liu X, Shi J, Bo T, Li H, Crittenden JC (2015) Occurrence and risk assessment of selected phthalates in drinking water from waterworks in China. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 22:10690–10698. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4253-9
Loraine GA, Pettigrove ME (2006) Seasonal variations in concentrations of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in drinking water and reclaimed wastewater in Southern California. Environ Sci Technol 40:687–695. https://doi.org/10.1021/es051380x
Marega M, Grob K, Moret S, Conte L (2013) Phthalate analysis by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry: blank problems related to the syringe needle. J Chromatogr A 1273:105–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2012.11.076
Net S, Delmont A, Sempéré R, Paluselli A, Ouddane B (2015a) Reliable quantification of phthalates in environmental matrices (air, water, sludge, sediment and soil): a review. Sci Total Environ 515–516:162–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.02.013
Net S, Sempere R, Delmont A, Paluselli A, Ouddane B (2015b) Occurrence, fate, behavior and ecotoxicological state of phthalates in different environmental matrices. Environ Sci Technol 49:4019–4035. https://doi.org/10.1021/es505233b
SANTE/11813/2017 Guidance document on analytical quality control and method validation procedures for pesticide residues and analysis in food and feed. European commission directorate general for health and food safety:https://ec.europa.eu/food/sites/food/files/plant/docs/pesticides_mrl_guidelines_wrkdoc_2017-11813.pdf
Schreider A, Fu F, Yang O, Wan E, Gu L, LeBlanc Y (2011) Increasing selectivity and confidence in detection when analyzing phthalates by LC-MS/MS. Application Note Food & Environmental https://sciex.com/Documents/Downloads/Literature/phthalates_qtrap_5500_Selexion_AB%20SCIEX.pdf
Tienpont B, David F, Dewulf E, Sandra P (2005) Pitfalls and solutions for the trace determination of phthalates in water samples. Chromatographia 61:365–370. https://doi.org/10.1365/s10337-005-0516-9
Ventrice P, Ventrice D, Russo E, De Sarro G (2013) Phthalates: European regulation, chemistry, pharmacokinetic and related toxicity. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 36:88–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2013.03.014
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by the French Ministry of Health. We would also like to thank the departmental and regional Ministry of Health personnel (respectively Délégation Territoriale and Agence Régionale de la Santé) for their invaluable contributions to this work by sampling water as well as their helpful comments and continued support. This work was carried out through the cooperative efforts of the ANSES staff at the Nancy Laboratory for Hydrology, with a particular mention for Marie-Christelle Clavos, Jessica Hemard, Caroline Hollard, and Laure Pasquini. The authors are also grateful to Stéphanie Machicado and Clémentine Simon for helping during their internship.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Ester Heath
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
ESM 1
(DOCX 1042 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bach, C., Rosin, C., Munoz, JF. et al. National screening study investigating nine phthalates and one adipate in raw and treated tap water in France. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27, 36476–36486 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09680-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09680-6