Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Study on the organization and properties of Ti–6Al–4 V fabricated by laser powder bed fusion based on the thickness of the gradient layer

  • ORIGINAL ARTICLE
  • Published:
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Intelligent additive manufacturing is the future direction, and changing parameters during manufacturing process is an effective measure to adjust the quality of parts. In this study, the stability behavior of the manufacturing process under three process strategies, low layer thickness fabrication (LLTF), high layer thickness fabrication based on the interval of the powder layer thickness (IPLT), and changing of layer thickness strategy (CLTS), was comparatively investigated. Multilayer experiments and mechanical properties experiments were performed during laser powder bed fusion, and the correlation between manufacturing quality and powder layer thickness was compared. By optimizing the process parameters, the surface quality of CLTS is similar to that of LLTF, and the value of minimum surface roughness can be between 22 and 23 μm. Only balling effect due to spattering and a small amount of porosity were found in the cross-section of CLTS. The relative density of most of the fabricated parts is higher than 99%, and the highest relative density is up to 99.99%. IPLT has longer and thicker martensite than LLTF, and the β-grain of CLTS is also coarser than LLTF. The tensile properties of CLTS are similar to those of LLTF, and the ultimate tensile strength, yield strength and elongation of CLTS are 1205 MPa, 1107 MPa and 6.8%, respectively. Due to the anisotropy of the LPBF, the horizontally constructed Ti–6Al–4 V specimens yielded higher strengths, while the vertically constructed specimens obtained better elongation. The fracture of the part is characterized by a mixture of brittle fracture, ductile fracture and quasi-dissociative fracture. The surface quality, relative density and mechanical properties of CLTS are similar to those of LLTF, while the forming efficiency is much higher than that of LLTF, which can reach 7.35 mm3/s.

Graphical abstract

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Fig. 14

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Zheng Z, Jin X, Bai Y, Yang Y, Ni C, Lu WF, Wang H (2022) Microstructure and anisotropic mechanical properties of selective laser melted Ti6Al4V alloy under different scanning strategies. Mater Sci Eng A Struct 831:142236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2021.142236

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Yan X, Yin S, Chen C, Jenkins R, Lupoi R, Bolot R, Ma W, Kuang M, Liao H, Lu J, Liu M (2019) Fatigue strength improvement of selective laser melted Ti6Al4V using ultrasonic surface mechanical attrition. Mater Res Lett 7(8):327–333. https://doi.org/10.1080/21663831.2019.1609110

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Shi C, Lu N, Qin Y, Liu M, Li H, Li H (2021) Study on mechanical properties and permeability of elliptical porous scaffold based on the SLM manufactured medical Ti6Al4V. Plos One 16(3):e0247764. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247764

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Milton S, Rigo O, LeCorre S, Morandeau A, Siriki R, Bocher P, Leroy R (2021) Microstructure effects on the machinability behaviour of Ti6Al4V produced by Selective Laser Melting and Electron Beam Melting process. Mater Sci Eng A 823:141773. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2021.141773

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Xie B, Fan Y, Zhao S (2021) Characterization of Ti6Al4V powders produced by different methods for selective laser melting. Mater Res Express 8:76510. https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/ac10d1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Palmeri D, Buffa G, Pollara G, Fratini L (2021) The effect of building direction on microstructure and microhardness during selective laser melting of Ti6Al4V titanium alloy. J Mater Eng Perform 30:8725–8734. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-021-06039-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Bandyopadhyay A, Traxel KD (2018) Invited review article: metal-additive manufacturing—Modeling strategies for application-optimized designs. Addit Manuf 22:758–774. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.06.024

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Mangat AS, Singh S, Gupta M, Sharma R (2018) Experimental investigations on natural fiber embedded additive manufacturing-based biodegradable structures for biomedical applications. Rapid Prototyp J 24:1221–1234. https://doi.org/10.1108/RPJ-08-2017-0162

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Chen Z, Yan X, Yin S, Liu L, Liu X, Zhao G, Ma W, Qi W, Ren Z, Liao H, Liu M, Cai D, Fang H (2020) Influence of the pore size and porosity of selective laser melted Ti6Al4V ELI porous scaffold on cell proliferation, osteogenesis and bone ingrowth. Mater Sci Eng C 106:110289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2019.110289

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Vastola G, Zhang G, Pei QX, Zhang YW (2015) Modeling and control of remelting in high-energy beam additive manufacturing. Addit Manuf 7:57–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2014.12.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Ahn IH (2019) Determination of a process window with consideration of effective layer thickness in SLM process. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 105:4181–4191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-019-04402-w

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Ma M, Wang Z, Gao M, Zeng X (2015) Layer thickness dependence of performance in high-power selective laser melting of 1Cr18Ni9Ti stainless steel. J Mater Process Technol 215:142–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2014.07.034

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Wang S, Liu Y, Shi W, Qi B, Yang J, Zhang F, Han D, Ma Y (2017) Research on high layer thickness fabricated of 316L by selective laser melting. Materials 10(9):1055. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma10091055

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Liu Y, Zhang M, Shi W, Ma Y, Yang J (2021) Study on performance optimization of 316L stainless steel parts by high-efficiency selective laser melting. Opt Laser Technol 138:106872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2020.106872

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Savalani MM, Pizarro JM (2016) Effect of preheat and layer thickness on selective laser melting (SLM) of magnesium. Rapid Prototyp J 22:115–122. https://doi.org/10.1108/RPJ-07-2013-0076

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Di W, Yongqiang Y, Xubin S, Yonghua C (2012) Study on energy input and its influences on single-track, multi-track, and multi-layer in SLM. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 58:1189–1199. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-011-3443-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Nguyen QB, Luu DN, Nai SML, Zhu Z, Chen Z, Wei J (2018) The role of powder layer thickness on the quality of SLM printed parts. Arch Civ Mech Eng 18:948–955. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acme.2018.01.015

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Greco S, Gutzeit K, Hotz H, Kirsch B, Aurich JC (2020) Selective laser melting (SLM) of AISI 316L-impact of laser power, layer thickness, and hatch spacing on roughness, density, and microhardness at constant input energy density. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 108:1551–1562. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-020-05510-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Sufiiarov VS, Popovich AA, Borisov EV, Polozov IA, Masaylo DV, Orlov AV (2017) The effect of layer thickness at selective laser melting. Procedia Eng 174:126–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.01.179

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Li F, Wang Z, Zeng X (2017) Microstructures and mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V alloy fabricated by multi-laser beam selective laser melting. Mater Lett 199:79–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2017.04.050

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. de Formanoir C, Paggi U, Colebrants T, Thijs L, Li G, Vanmeensel K, Hooreweder BV (2020) Increasing the productivity of laser powder bed fusion: influence of the hull-bulk strategy on part quality, microstructure and mechanical performance of Ti-6Al-4V. Addit Manuf 33:101129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.101129

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Zhao R, Chen C, Wang W, Cao T, Shuai S, Xu S, Hu T, Liao H, Wang J, Ren Z (2022) On the role of volumetric energy density in the microstructure and mechanical properties of laser powder bed fusion Ti-6Al-4V alloy. Addit Manuf 51:102605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2022.102605

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Xu W, Lui EW, Pateras A, Qian M, Brandt M (2017) In situ tailoring microstructure in additively manufactured Ti-6Al-4V for superior mechanical performance. Acta Mater 125:390–400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2016.12.027

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Shi W, Wang P, Liu Y, Hou Y, Han G (2020) Properties of 316L formed by a 400W power laser selective laser melting with 250μm layer thickness. Powder Technol 360:151–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2019.09.059

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Shi X, Yan C, Feng W, Zhang Y, Leng Z (2020) Effect of high layer thickness on surface quality and defect behavior of Ti-6Al-4V fabricated by selective laser melting. Opt Laser Technol 132:106471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2020.106471

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Milton S, Morandeau A, Chalon F, Leroy R (2016) Influence of finish machining on the surface integrity of Ti6Al4V produced by selective laser melting. Procedia CIRP 45:127–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2016.02.340

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Vaithilingam J, Prina E, Goodridge RD, Hague RJM, Edmondson S, Rose FRAJ, Christie SDR (2016) Surface chemistry of Ti6Al4V components fabricated using selective laser melting for biomedical applications. Mater Sci Eng C 67:294–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2016.05.054

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Kelly CN, Evans NT, Irvin CW, Chapman SC, Gall K, Safranski DL (2019) The effect of surface topography and porosity on the tensile fatigue of 3D printed Ti-6Al-4V fabricated by selective laser melting. Mater Sci Eng C 98:726–736. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2019.01.024

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. King WE, Anderson AT, Ferencz RM, Hodge NE, Kamath C, Khairallah SA, Rubenchik AM (2015) Laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing of metals; physics, computational, and materials challenges. Appl Phys Rev 2:41304. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4937809

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Gong H, Rafi K, Gu H, Starr T, Stucker B (2014) Analysis of defect generation in Ti–6Al–4V parts made using powder bed fusion additive manufacturing processes. Addit Manuf 1–4:87–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2014.08.002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Liu QC, Elambasseril J, Sun SJ, Leary M, Brandt M, Sharp PK (2014) The effect of manufacturing defects on the fatigue behaviour of Ti-6Al-4V specimens fabricated using selective laser melting. AMR 891–892:1519–1524. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.891-892.1519

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Zhao GY, Wang DD, Bai PK, Liu B (2010) Research progress of laser rapid prototyping technology for aluminum alloy. Hot Work Technol 39(9):170–173. https://doi.org/10.3788/HPLPB20102208.1780. 177

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Zhang B, Li Y, Bai Q (2017) Defect formation mechanisms in selective laser melting: a review. Chin J Mech Eng 30:515–527. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10033-017-0121-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Xia M, Gu D, Yu G, Dai D, Chen H, Shi Q (2017) Porosity evolution and its thermodynamic mechanism of randomly packed powder-bed during selective laser melting of Inconel 718 alloy. Int J Mach Tools Manuf 116:96–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2017.01.005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Körner C, Bauereiß A, Attar E (2013) Fundamental consolidation mechanisms during selective beam melting of powders. Model Simul Mater Sci Eng 21:85011. https://doi.org/10.1088/0965-0393/21/8/085011

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Wang D, Wu S, Fu F, Mai S, Yang Y, Liu Y, Song C (2017) Mechanisms and characteristics of spatter generation in SLM processing and its effect on the properties. Mater Des 117:121–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2016.12.060

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Spierings AB, Herres N, Levy G (2011) Influence of the particle size distribution on surface quality and mechanical properties in AM steel parts. Rapid Prototyp J 17:195–202. https://doi.org/10.1108/13552541111124770

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Vrancken B, Thijs L, Kruth J-P, Van Humbeeck J (2012) Heat treatment of Ti6Al4V produced by selective laser melting: microstructure and mechanical properties. J Alloys Compd 541:177–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2012.07.022

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Bartolomeu F, Faria S, Carvalho O, Pinto E, Alves N, Silva FS, Miranda G (2016) Predictive models for physical and mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V produced by Selective Laser Melting. Mater Sci Eng A 663:181–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2016.03.113

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Burgers WG (1934) On the process of transition of the cubic-body-centered modification into the hexagonal-close-packed modification of zirconium. Physica 1:561–586. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-8914(34)80244-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Zhang B, Liao H, Coddet C (2013) Microstructure evolution and density behavior of CP Ti parts elaborated by self-developed vacuum selective laser melting system. Appl Surf Sci 279:310–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2013.04.090

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Broderick TF, Jackson AG, Jones H, Froes FH (1985) The effect of cooling conditions on the microstructure of rapidly solidified Ti-6Al-4V. Metall Trans A 16:1951–1959. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02662396

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Yang J, Yu H, Yin J, Gao M, Wang Z, Zeng X (2016) Formation and control of martensite in Ti-6Al-4V alloy produced by selective laser melting. Mater Des 108:308–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2016.06.117

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Han J, Yang J, Yu H, Yin J, Gao M, Wang Z, Zeng X (2017) Microstructure and mechanical property of selective laser melted Ti6Al4V dependence on laser energy density. Rapid Prototyp J 23:217–226. https://doi.org/10.1108/RPJ-12-2015-0193

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Kumar P, Ramamurty U (2019) Microstructural optimization through heat treatment for enhancing the fracture toughness and fatigue crack growth resistance of selective laser melted Ti6Al4V alloy. Acta Mater 169:45–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2019.03.003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Wei K, Li F, Huang G, Liu M, Deng J, He C, Zeng X (2021) Multi-laser powder bed fusion of Ti–6Al–4V alloy: defect, microstructure, and mechanical property of overlap region. Mater Sci Eng A 802:140644. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2020.140644

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Flower HM (1990) Microstructural development in relation to hot working of titanium alloys. Mater Sci Technol 6:1082–1092. https://doi.org/10.1179/mst.1990.6.11.1082

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Wu X, Liang J, Mei J, Mitchell C, Goodwin PS, Voice W (2004) Microstructures of laser-deposited Ti–6Al–4V. Mater Des 25:137–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2003.09.009

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Yang J, Yu H, Wang Z, Zeng X (2017) Effect of crystallographic orientation on mechanical anisotropy of selective laser melted Ti-6Al-4V alloy. Mater Charact 127:137–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2017.01.014

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Kobryn PA, Semiatin SL (2001) Mechanical properties of laser-deposited Ti-6Al-4V. 2001 International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium. The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA, pp 179–186. https://doi.org/10.26153/tsw/3261

  51. Yu H, Yang J, Yin J, Wang Z, Zeng X (2017) Comparison on mechanical anisotropies of selective laser melted Ti-6Al-4V alloy and 304 stainless steel. Mater Sci Eng A 695:92–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2017.04.031

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Carroll BE, Palmer TA, Beese AM (2015) Anisotropic tensile behavior of Ti–6Al–4V components fabricated with directed energy deposition additive manufacturing. Acta Mater 87:309–320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2014.12.054

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Wang P, Chen D, Fan J, Sun K, Wu S, Li J, Sun Y (2022) Study on the influence of process parameters on high performance Ti-6Al-4V parts in laser powder bed fusion. Rapid Prototyp J 28:1655–1676. https://doi.org/10.1108/RPJ-09-2021-0235

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Simonelli M, Tse YY, Tuck C (2012) Further understanding on Ti-6Al-4V selective laser melting using texture analysis. J Physics: Conference Series 371:1–4

  55. Shi X, Ma S, Liu C, Chen C, Wu Q, Chen X, Lu J (2016) Performance of high layer thickness in selective laser melting of Ti6Al4V. Mater 9(12):975. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma9120975

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

This research was funded by National Natural Science Foundation of China grant number 51875005.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Mechanical Industry Key Laboratory of Heavy Machine Tool Digital Design and Testing, Faculty of Materials and Manufacturing, Beijing University of Technology, Ping Leyuan 100#, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100124, China

    Peng Wang, Dongju Chen, Jinwei Fan & Gang Li

  2. Beijing Key Laboratory of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Faculty of Materials and Manufacturing, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, 100124, China

    Peng Wang, Dongju Chen, Jinwei Fan & Gang Li

Authors
  1. Peng Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Dongju Chen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jinwei Fan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Gang Li
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

All authors contributed to the study conception and design. PW: conceptualization, methodology, resources, funding acquisition, writing—review and editing. DC: investigation, validation, visualization, writing—original draft. JF: methodology, software, visualization, writing—review and editing. GL: formal analysis, investigation, data curation. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Dongju Chen.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Wang, P., Chen, D., Fan, J. et al. Study on the organization and properties of Ti–6Al–4 V fabricated by laser powder bed fusion based on the thickness of the gradient layer. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 126, 2249–2267 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-023-11269-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-023-11269-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation