Abstract
In this paper, we study the region of the Agulhas leakage origin. The study region is limited by 20–46° S, 0–24° E; it includes the Cape Basin and is crossed by Walvis Ridge. This region is characterized by high dynamic activity of mesoscale eddies and variability of hydrographic parameters in a wide range of spatial and temporal scales. The main element of large-scale circulation is represented by a phenomenon called the Agulhas leakage which is influenced by the South Atlantic Gyre, Benguela Current, and Benguela upwelling. Water particles of various origins are mixed and affect the thermohaline properties of mesoscale eddies, which form a source of the Agulhas leakage. We divided the region into three zones and showed that eddies and their properties differ in each of them. The Agulhas leakage is formed only by long-lived eddies, mainly anticyclones, while cyclones have smaller trajectories and shorter lifespans. In this research, we apply statistical analysis using AMEDA (Angular Momentum Eddy Detection Algorithm), Lagrangian analysis, and the study of vertical thermohaline cross-sections. We establish that in the Cape Basin, the waters of the Agulhas leakage mix with waters of the South Atlantic Gyre and the Benguela Current, and the thermohaline properties of the Agulhas eddies change since the warm and salty waters of the Indian Ocean mix with fresher and colder ones of the Atlantic Ocean. The water particles of the South Atlantic Gyre cross the western border of the region and travel a distance exceeding 500 km in the eastern direction mixing with other particles. We demonstrate that the eddies generated in the Cape Basin are also significantly influenced by the waters of the South Atlantic Gyre. These waters are transported to the Cape Basin region from the west and southwest. This explains the existence of a two-mode water structure noted by other researchers.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
We used the GLORYS12V1 (Global Ocean Physics Reanalysis) data, a global ocean vortex-resolving reanalysis with a spatial resolution of 1/12 at 50 levels is available via the CMS (Copernicus Marine Service): https://datamarinecopernicuseuproductGLOBAL_MULTIYEAR_PHY_001_030/description.
References
Beismann, J.-O., Kase, R. H., & Lutjeharms, J. R. E. (1999). On the influence of submarine ridges on translation and stability of Agulhas rings. Journal of Geophysical Research, 104(C4), 7897–7906. https://doi.org/10.1029/1998JC900127
Belonenko, T., Zinchenko, V., Gordeeva, S., & Raj, R. P. (2020). Evaluation of heat and salt transports by mesoscale eddies in the Lofoten Basin. Russian Journal of Earth Sciences, 20, 6011. https://doi.org/10.2205/2020ES000720
Biastoch, A., Böning, C. W., & Lutjeharms, J. R. E. (2008). Agulhas leakage dynamics affects decadal variability in Atlantic overturning circulation. Nature, 456, 489–492. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature07426
Bryden, H. L., Beal, L. M., & Duncan, L. M. (2005). Structure and transport of the Agulhas Current and its temporal variability. Journal of Oceanography, 61, 479–492. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10872-005-0057-8
Budyansky, M. V., Prants, S. V., & Uleysky, MYu. (2022). Odyssey of Aleutian eddies. Ocean Dynamics, 72, 455–476. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10236-022-01508-w
Byrne, D. A., Gordon, A. L., & Haxby, W. F. (1995). Agulhas eddies: A synoptic view using geosat ERM data. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 25(5), 902–917. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1995)025%3c0902:AEASVU%3e2.0.CO;2
Chelton, D. B., Schlax, M. G., & Samelson, R. M. (2011). Global observations of nonlinear mesoscale eddies. Progress in Oceanography, 91(2), 167–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2011.01.002
Cheng, Yu., Putrasahan, D., Beal, L., & Kirtman, B. (2016). Quantifying Agulhas leakage in a high-resolution climate model. Journal of Climate, 29(19), 6881–6892. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0568.1
de Ruijter, W. P. M., Ridderinkhof, H., Lutjeharms, J. R. E., & Schouten, M. W. (2002). Direct observations of the flow in the Mozambique channel. Geophysical Research Letters, 29(10), 140-1–1403. https://doi.org/10.1029/2001GL013714
De Steur, L., Van Leeuwen, P. J., & Drijfhout, S. S. (2004). Tracer leakage from modeled Agulhas rings. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 34(6), 1387–1399. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(2004)034%3c1387:TLFMAR%3e2.0.CO;2
Doglioli, A. M., Blanke, B., Speich, S., & Lapeyre, G. (2007). Tracking coherent structures in a regional ocean model with wavelet analysis: Application to Cape Basin eddies. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JC003952
Doglioli, A. M., Veneziani, M., Blanke, B., Speich, S., & Griffa, A. (2006). A Lagrangian analysis of the Indian-Atlantic interocean exchange in a regional model. Geophysical Research Letters, 33(14), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1029/2006GL026498
Donners, J., Drijfhout, S. S., & Coward, A. C. (2004). Impact of cooling on the water mass exchange of Agulhas rings in a high resolution ocean model. Geophysical Research Letters, 31(16), L16312. https://doi.org/10.1029/2004GL020644
Drijfhout, S. S., & de Vries, P. (2003). Impact of eddy-induced transport on the Lagrangian structure of the upper branch of the thermohaline circulation. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 33(10), 2141–2155. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(2003)033%3c2141:IOETOT%3e2.0.CO;2
Duncombe Rae, C. M. (1991). Agulhas retroflection rings in the South Atlantic Ocean: An overview. South African Journal of Marine Science, 11(1), 327–344. https://doi.org/10.2989/025776191784287574
Duncombe Rae, C. M., Garzoli, S. L., & Gordon, A. L. (1996). The eddy field of the southeast Atlantic Ocean: A statistical census from the Benguela sources and transports project. Journal of Geophysical Research, 101(11), 949–964. https://doi.org/10.1029/95JC03360
Durgadoo, J. V., Ruhs, S., Biastoch, A., & Boning, C. W. B. (2017). Indian Ocean sources of Agulhas leakage. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 122, 3481–3499. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JC012676
Garzoli, S. L., & Gordon, A. L. (1996). Origins and variability of the Benguela current. Journal of Geophysical Research, 101(C1), 897–906. https://doi.org/10.1029/95JC03221
Gnevyshev, V. G., Malysheva, A. A., Belonenko, T. V., & Koldunov, A. V. (2021). On Agulhas eddies and Rossby waves travelling by forcing effects. Russian Journal of Earth Sciences, 21, ES5003. https://doi.org/10.2205/2021ES000773
Goni, G. J., Garzoli, S. L., Roubicek, A. J., Olson, D. B., & Brown, O. B. (1997). Agulhas ring dynamics from TOPEX/POSEIDON satellite altimeter data. Journal of Marine Research, 55(5), 861–883. https://doi.org/10.1357/0022240973224175
Gordon, A. L. (1985). Indian-Atlantic transfer of thermocline water at the Agulhas retroflection. Science, 227(4690), 1030–1033. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.227.4690.1030
Gordon, A. L., & Haxby, W. F. (1990). Agulhas eddies invade the south Atlantic: Evidence from geosat altimeter and shipboard conductivity-temperature-depth survey. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 5(C3), 3117–3125. https://doi.org/10.1029/JC095iC03p03117
Gordon, A. L., Lutjeharms, J. R. E., & Grundlingh, M. L. (1987). Stratification and circulation at the Agulhas retroflection. Deep Sea Research Part A, 34, 565–599. https://doi.org/10.1016/0198-0149(87)90006-9
Gordon, A. L., Weiss, R. F., Smethie, W. M., Jr., & Warner, M. J. (1992a). Thermocline and intermediate water communication between the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 97(C5), 7223–7240. https://doi.org/10.1029/92JC00485
Gordon, A. L., Weiss, R. F., Smethie, W. M., & Warner, M. J. (1992b). Thermocline and intermediate water communication between the South Atlantic and Indian Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research, 97(C5), 7223–7240. https://doi.org/10.1029/92JC00485
Guerra, L. A. A., Mill, G. N., & Paiva, A. M. (2022). Observing the spread of Agulhas leakage into the Western South Atlantic by tracking mode waters within ocean rings. Frontiers in Marine Science., 9, 958733. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.958733
Hutchings, L., van der Lingen, C. D., Shannon, L. J., Crawford, R. J. M., Verheye, H. M. S., Bartholomae, C. H., van der Plas, A. K., Louw, D., Kreiner, A., Ostrowski, M., Fidel, Q., Barlow, R. G., Lamont, T., Coetzee, J., Shillington, F., Veitch, J., Currie, J. C., & Monteiro, P. M. S. (2009). The Benguela Current: An ecosystem of four components. Progress in Oceanography, 83(1–4), 15–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2009.07.046
Kamenkovich, V. M., Leonov, Y. P., Nechaev, D. A., Byrne, D. A., & Gordon, A. L. (1996). On the influence of bottom topography on the Agulhas eddy. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 26(6), 892–912. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1996)026%3c0892:OTIOBT%3e2.0.CO;2
Le Vu, B., Stegner, A., & Arsouze, T. (2018). Angular Momentum Eddy Detection and Tracking Algorithm (AMEDA) and its application to coastal eddy formation. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology, 35(4), 739–762. https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH-D-17-0010.1
Lutjeharms, J. R. E., & Valentine, H. R. (1988). Evidence for persistent Agulhas rings southwest of Cape Town. South African Journal of Science, 84, 781–783.
Lutjeharms, J. R. E., & van Ballegooyen, R. C. (1988). The retroflection of the Agulhas Current. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 18, 1570–1583. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1988)018%3c1570:TROTAC%3e2.0.CO;2
Malysheva, A. A., Belonenko, T. V., & Iakovleva, D. A. (2022). Characteristics of two eddies of different polarity in the Agulhas Current. Journal of Hydrometeorology and Ecology., 68, 478–493. https://doi.org/10.33933/2713-3001-2022-68-478-493. Gidrometeorologiya i Ekologiya In Russian.
Malysheva, A. A., Koldunov, A. V., Belonenko, T. V., & Sandalyuk, N. V. (2018). Vortices of Agulhas leakage inferred from altimeter data. Uchenye Zapiski Rossijskogo Gosudarstvennogo Gidrometeorologicheskogo Universiteta [Scientific Notes of the Russian State Hydrometeorological University], 52, 154–170. [In Russian].
Malysheva, A. A., Kubryakov, A. A., Koldunov, A. V., & Belonenko, T. V. (2020). Estimating Agulhas leakage by means of satellite altimetry and argo data. Izvestiya, Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics, 56, 1581–1589. https://doi.org/10.1134/S0001433820120476
Matano, R. P., & Beier, E. J. (2003). A kinematic analysis of the Indian/Atlantic inter-ocean exchange. Deep-Sea Research II, 50, 229–250.
Olson, D. B., & Evans, R. H. (1986a). Rings of the Agulhas current. Deep Sea Research Part a: Oceanographic Research Papers, 33(1), 27–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/0198-0149(86)90106-8
Olson, D., & Evans, R. (1986b). Rings of the Agulhas Current. Deep-Sea Research, Part a: Oceanographic Research Papers, 33(1), 27–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/0198-0149(86)90106-8
Pedlosky, J. (1987). Geophysical fluid dynamics. Springer.
Pegliasco, C., Busché, C., Faugère, Y. (2022). Mesoscale Eddy Trajectory Atlas META3.2 Delayed-Time all satellites: version META3.2 DT allsat. https://doi.org/10.24400/527896/A01-2022.005.210802
Prants, S. V., Budyansky, M. V., Lobanov, V. B., Sergeev, A. F., & Uleysky, M. Y. (2020). Observation and Lagrangian analysis of quasistationary Kamchatka trench eddies. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 125(6), e2020JC016187. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020jc016187
Prants, S. V., Budyansky, M. V., & Uleysky, MYu. (2014). Identifying Lagrangian fronts with favourable fishery conditions. Deep Sea Research Part i: Oceanographic Research Papers, 90, 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2014.04.012
Prants, S. V., Budyansky, M. V., & Uleysky, MYu. (2018). How eddies gain, retain, and release water: A case study of a Hokkaido anticyclone. Geophysical Research Letters, 123(3), 2081–2096. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017jc013610
Prants, S. V., Uleysky, MYu., & Budyansky, M. V. (2017). Lagrangian oceanography: Large-scale transport and mixing in the ocean. Springer-Verlag.
Reason, C. J. C., Lutjeharms, J. R. E., Hermes, J., Biastoch, A., & Roman, R. E. (2003). Inter-ocean fluxes south of Africa in an eddy permitting model. Deep Sea Research Part II, 50, 281–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0967-0645(02)00385-5
Richardson, P. L. (2007). Agulhas leakage into the Atlantic estimated with subsurface floats and surface drifters. Deep-Sea Research Part I, 54(8), 1361–1389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2007.04.010
Sandalyuk, N. V., & Belonenko, T. V. (2018). Mesoscale vortex dynamics in the Agulhas Current from satellite altimetry data. Sovremennye Problemy Distantsionnogo Zondirovaniya Zemli iz Kosmosa Modern problems of remote sensing of the Earth from space., 15(5), 179–190. https://doi.org/10.21046/2070-7401-2018-15-5-179-190. In Russian.
Sandalyuk, N. V., & Belonenko, T. V. (2021). Three-Dimensional Structure of the mesoscale eddies in the Agulhas Current region from hydrological and altimetry data. Russian Journal of Earth Sciences, 21, ES4005. https://doi.org/10.2205/2021ES000764
Schmid, C., Boebel, O., Zenk, W., Lutjeharms, J. R. E., Garzoli, S. L., Richardson, P. L., & Barron, C. (2003). Early evolution of an Agulhas Ring. Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography, 50(1), 141–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0967-0645(02)00382-X
Schmitz, W. J. (1995). On the interbasin-scale thermohaline circulation. Reviews of Geophysics, 33(2), 151–173. https://doi.org/10.1029/95RG00879
Schouten, M. W., De Ruijter, W. P. M., Van Leeuwen, P. J., & Lutjeharms, J. R. E. (2000). Translation, decay and splitting of Agulhas rings in the southeastern Atlantic Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 105(C9), 21913–21925. https://doi.org/10.1029/1999JC000046
van Sebille, E., van Leeuwen, P. J., Biastoch, A., Barron, C. N., & de Ruijter, W. P. M. (2009). Lagrangian validation of numerical drifter trajectories using drifting buoys: Application to the Agulhas system. Ocean Modelling, 29, 269–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocemod.2009.05.005
Wang, Y., Olascoaga, M. J., & Beron-Vera, F. J. (2015). Coherent water transport across the South Atlantic. Geophysical Research Letters, 42(10), 4072–4079. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015gl064089
Acknowledgements
The work of T.B. and A.M. was supported by Russian Science Foundation, grant number 22-27-00004, and St Petersburg State University, grant number 94033410. The work of M.B. and A.U. on Lagrangian modelling and computing was supported by the POI FEBRAS Program (State Task No 121021700341-2).
Funding
This work was supported by Russian Science Foundation grant number 22-27-00004 St Petersburg State grant number 94033410, POI FEBRAS Program (State Task No 121021700341-2).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
TB and MB: conceived of the presented idea. MB and AU: developed the theory and performed the computations. TB and AM: verified the analytical methods. TB and MB: encouraged AM: and AU: to investigate a specific aspect and supervised the findings of this work. MB, AM, and AU: prepared figures. All authors discussed the results and contributed to the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Belonenko, T.V., Budyansky, M.V., Malysheva, A.A. et al. Observing the Agulhas Leakage Source in the Water Mixing Area. Pure Appl. Geophys. 180, 3401–3421 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-023-03331-w
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-023-03331-w