Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A multidimensional measure of neighboring

  • Published:
American Journal of Community Psychology

Abstract

The study reports the development of a short and easily administered questionnaire aiming at measuring dimensions of social life within neighborhoods. Principal-components analysis consistently extracted four factors replicated in three independent samples (N=96 to 1,060). The factors emerged as theoretically meaningful dimensions tapping the concepts of supportive acts of neighboring, neighbor annoyance, neighborhood attachment, and weak social ties. Factor invariance and factor replicability were high. Internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and construct validity yielded acceptable results. The principal virtue of the measure is that it may be applied to discern qualitative differences between neighborhoods by simultaneous assessments of several dimensions of neighboring.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Altman, I. (1975).The environment and social behavior. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.

    Google Scholar 

  • Altman, I., & Low, S. M. (1992). Place attachment: Human behavior and environment. In I. Altman and S. M. Low (Eds.)Advances in theory and research. New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Argyle, M., & Henderson, M. (1984). The rules of friendship.Journal of Social and Personal Relations, 1, 211–237.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barret, P. (1986). Factor comparison: An examination of three methods.Personal and Individual Differences, 3, 327–340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brower, S. N., & Williamson, P. (1974). Outdoor recreation as a function of the urban environment.Environment and Behavior, 6, 295–345.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, B. B., & Perkins, D. D. (1992). Disruptions in place attachment.Human Behavior and Environment: Advances in Theory and Research, 12, 279–304.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, B. B., & Werner, C. M. (1985). Social cohesiveness, territoriality, and holiday decorations: The influence of cul-de-sacs.Environment and Behavior, 17, 539–565.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buckner, J.C. (1988). The development of an instrument to measure neighborhood cohesion.American Journal of Community Psychology, 16, 771–791.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, D., & Fiske, D. W. (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix.Psychological Bulletin, 56, 81–105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carmines, E. G., & Zeller, R. A. (1979).Reliability and validity assessment (Sage University Paper Series on Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences, 7–17). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Catano, V. M., Pretty, G. M., Southwell, R. R., & Cole, G. K. (1993). Sense of community and union participation.Psychological Reports, 72, 333–334.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chavis, D. M., Hogge, J. H., McMillan, D. W., & Wandersman, A. (1986). Sense of community through Brunswik's lens: A first look.Journal of Community Psychology, 14, 24–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chavis, D. M., & Wandersman, A. (1990). Sense of community in the urban environment: A catalyst for participation and community development.American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 55–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., & Syme, S. L. (1985). Issues in the study and application of social support. In S. Cohen & S. L. Syme (Eds.),Social support and health (pp. 3–20). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cronbach, L. J. (1984).Essentials of psychological testing (4th ed.) New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dalgard, O. S. (1980):Bomiljø og psykisk helse. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, W. B., & Cotter, P. R. (1993). Psychological sense of community and support for public school taxes.American Journal of Community Psychology, 21, 59–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeVellis, R. D., McEvoy-Devellis, B., Blanchard, L. W., Klotz, M. L., Luchock, K., & Voyce, C. (1993). Development and validation of the parent health locus of control scales.Health Education Quarterly, 20, 211–225.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Donald, C. A., & Ware, Jr., J. E. (1982).The quantification of social contacts and resources. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ebbesen, E. B., Kjos, G. L., & Konecni, V. J. (1976). Spatial ecology: Its effects on the choice of friends and enemies.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 12, 505–518.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, G. A. (1982).Statistical analysis in psychology and education (international Student Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Festinger, L., Schachter, S., & Back, K. (1950).Social pressures in formal groups. New York: Holt Rinehart & Winston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fischer, C. S. (1982).To dwell among friends. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleming, R., Baum, A., & Singer, J. E. (1985). Social support and the physical environment. In S. Cohen & S. L. Syme (Eds.),Social support and health. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fried, M. (1982). Residential attachment: Sources of residential and community satisfaction.Journal of Social Issues, 38, 107–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gans, H. J. (1962).The urban villagers: Group and class in the life of Italian Americans. New York: The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glynn, T. (1986). Neighborhoods and sense of community.Journal of Community Psychology, 14, 341–352.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gärling, T., & Evans, G. W. (Eds.). (1991).Environment, cognition, and action. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gärling, T., & Golledge, R. G. (1989). Environmental perception and cognition. In E. H. Zube & G. T. More (Eds.),Advances in environment, behavior, and design.New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gorsuch, R. L. (1974).Factor analysis. Philadelphia: Saunders.

    Google Scholar 

  • Granovetter, M. (1973). The strength of weak ties.American Journal of Sociology, 78, 1360–1380.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenbaum, S. D. (1982). Bridging ties at the neighborhood level.Social Networks, 4, 367–384.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haggerty, L. J. (1982). Differential social contact in urban neighborhoods: Environmental vs. sociodemographic explanations.Sociological Quarterly, 23, 359–372.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heitzmann, C. A., & Kaplan, R. M. (1988). Assessment of methods for measuring social support [Review article].Health Psychology, 7, 75–109.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • House, J. S., & Kahn, R. L. (1985). Measures and concepts of social support. In S. Cohen & S. L. Syme (Eds.),Social support and health (pp. 83–105). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan, R. (1987). Validity in environment/behavior research.Journal of Environment and Behavior, 19, 495–500.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerlinger, F. N. (1986).Foundations of behavioral research. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kline, P. (1993).The handbook of psychological testing. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Korte, C. (1980). Urban-nonurban differences in social behavior and social psychological models of urban impact.Journal of Social Issues, 36, 29–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levy-Leboyer, C., & Naturel, V. (1991). Neighbourhood noise annoyance.Journal of Environmental Psychology, 11, 75–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loo, C., & Ong, P. (1984). Crowding perceptions, attitudes, and consequences among the Chinese.Environment and Behavior, 16, 55–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Magnusson, D. (1981).Towards a psychology of situations. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mann, P. H. (1954). The concept of neighborlinessAmerican Journal of Sociology, 60, 163–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McMillan, D. W., & Chavis, D. M. (1986). Sense of community. A definition and theory.Journal of Community Psychology, 14, 6–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merry, S. E. (1987). Crowding, conflict, and neighborhood regulation.Human Behavior and Environment: Advances in Theory and Research, 9, 35–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olson, P. (1982). Urban neighborhood research: Its development and current focus.Urban Affairs, 17, 491–518.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O'Reilly, P. (1988). Methodological issues in social support and social network research.Social Science & Medicine, 26, 863–873.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paquin, G. (1992). Coping and disputing with neighbors.Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22, 1852–1870.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paquin, G. W., & Gambrill, E. D. (1994). The problem with neighbors.Journal of Community Psychology, 22, 21–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pearlin, L. I. (1985). Social structure and processes of social support. In S. Cohen & S. L. Syme (Eds.),Social support and health (pp. 43–60). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perkins, D. D., Meeks, J. W., & Taylor, R. B. (1992). The physical environment of street blocks and resident perceptions of crime and disorder: Implications for theory and measurement.Journal of Environmental Psychology, 12, 21–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perkins, D. D., Florin, P., Rich, R. C., Wandersman, A., et al. (1990). Participation and the social and physical environment of residential blocks: Crime and community context.American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 83–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pretty, G. M., McCarthy, M. E., & Catano, V. M. (1992). Psychological environments and burnout: Gender considerations within the corporation.Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13, 701–711.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riger, S., & Lavrakas, P. J. (1981). Community ties: Patterns of attachment and social interaction in urban neighborhoods.American Journal of Community Psychology, 9, 55–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, J. P., Shaver, P. R., & Wrightsman, L. S. (1991). Criteria for scale selection and evaluation. In J. Robinson, P. Shaver, & L. Wrightsman (Eds.),Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes. San Diego: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarason, S. B. (1986). The emergence of a conceptual center: Psychological sense of community. II. Research and applications.Journal of Community Psychology [Special issue],14, 405–407.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarason, I. G., Sarason, B. R., Shearin, E. N., & Pierce, G. R. (1987). Interrelations of support measures: Practical and theoretical considerations.Journal of Social & Personal Relationships, 52, 813–832.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schanks, R. C. (1982).Dynamic memory. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaver, P. R., & Brennan, K. A. (1991). Measures of depression and loneliness. In J. Robinson, P. Shaver, & L. Wrightsman (Eds.),Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes. San Diego: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, R. A. (1975). Measuring neighborhood cohesion: A review and some suggestions.Human Ecology, 3, 139–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, R. B., & Covington, J. (1993). Community structural change and fear of crime.Social Problems, 40, 374–397.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, R. B., Gottfredson, S. D., & Brower, S. (1981). Territorial cognitions and social climate in urban neighborhoods.Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 2, 289–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, R. B., Shumaker, S. A., & Gottfredson, S. D. (1985). Neighborhood-level links between physical features and local sentiments: Deterioration, fear of crime, and confidence.Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, [Special issue: Crime and the environment: New perspectives]2, 261–275.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tognoli, J. (1987). Residential environments. In D. Stokols & I. Altman (Eds.),The handbook of environmental psychology (pp. 655–690). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Unger, D. G., & Wandersman, A. (1982). Neighboring in an urban environment.American Journal of Community Psychology, 10, 493–509.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Unger, D. G., & Wandersman, A. (1985). The importance of neighbors: The social, cognitive, and affective components of neighboring.American Journal of Community Psychology, 13, 139–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Vliet, W. (1983). Exploring the fourth environment: An examination of the home range of city and suburban teenagers.Environment and Behavior, 15, 567–588.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warren, D. I. (1981).Helping networks. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warren, R., & Warren, D. I. (1977).The neighborhood organizer's handbook. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weenig, M. W., Schmidt, T., & Midden, C. J. (1990). Social dimensions of neighborhoods and the effectiveness of information programs.Environment and Behavior, 22, 27–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wills, T. A. (1985). Supportive functions of interpersonal relationships. In S. Cohen & S. L. Syme (Eds.),Social support and health (pp. 43–60). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wirth, L. (1938). Urbanism as a way of life.American Journal of Sociology, 46, 1–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Göteborg University, Sweden

    Tommy Gärling

  2. HEMIL-center, University of Bergen, Øisteinsgt. 3, 5007, Bergen, Norway

    Oddvar Skjæveland & John Gunnar Mæland

Authors
  1. Oddvar Skjæveland
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Tommy Gärling
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. John Gunnar Mæland
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Additional information

This research was financially supported by The Norwegian National Research Council. We thank Jostein Rise for valuable comments, and David R. Jacobs, Jr., and Melanie Young for advice in translating the questionnaire.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Skjæveland, O., Gärling, T. & Mæland, J.G. A multidimensional measure of neighboring. Am J Commun Psychol 24, 413–435 (1996). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02512029

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02512029

Key Words

Search

Navigation