Abstract
This article is based on a survey of literature with particular reference to the structure and functioning of the tapetum during sporogenesis in angiosperms and pteridophytes. Some original observations onSchizaea pectinata andSelaginella japonica are also included. In the past, superficial similarities in the structure and function of pollen grains and spores have dominated the research approach, but patterns of development and the functioning of the tapetum during sporogenesis in angiosperms and pteridophytes are shown to differ quite significantly and raises questions relating to homologies. It is suggested that direct comparisons may no longer be appropriate.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abadie, M., Hideux, M., 1979: L'anthère deSaxifraga cyambalaria L. ssp.huetiana (Boiss.)Engl. etIrmsch. en microscopie électronique (M.E.B. et M.E.T.). — Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. Paris, 13e sér.,1: 237–281.
—, 1981: Quelques aspects de la production des tapis dans les anthères de deux ombellifères:Turgenia latifolia (L.)Hoffm. etHydrocotyle mexicana Cham. etSchlecht. — Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. Paris, 13e sér.,2: 149–162.
Albertini, L., Souvré, A., Audran, J. C., 1987: Le tapis de l'anthère et ses relations avec les microsporocytes et les grains de pollen. — Rev. Cytol. Biol. Végét. Bot.10: 211–242.
Archer, K. J., Cole, A. L. J., 1986: Cuticle, cell wall ultrastructure and disease resistance in maidenhair fern. — New Phytol.103: 341–348.
Banerjee, U. C., 1967: Ultrastructure of the tapetal membranes in grasses. — Grana Palynol.7: 365–377.
—, 1970: Scanning and transmission electron microscopy of exine pattern in normal and aborted pollen grains and the structure of Ubisch bodies and tapetal membranes inOxalis rosea. — Amer. J. Bot.57: 741 (Abstract).
Barbosa, P., Saunders, J. A., 1985: Plant allelochemicals: linkages between herbivores and their natural enemies. — InCooper-Driver, G. A., Swain, T., Conn, E. E., (Eds): Chemically mediated interactions between plants and other organisms, pp. 107–137. — Rec. Adv. Phytochem.19. — New York London: Plenum.
Barnes, S. H., Blackmore, S., 1986: Plant ultrastructure in the scanning electron microscope. — Scanning Electron Microscopy1: 281–289.
Beerhues, L., Forkmann, G., Schöpker, H., Stotz, G., Wiermann, R., 1989: Flavanone 3-hydroxylase and dihydroflavonol oxygenase activities in anthers ofTulipa. The significance of the tapetum fraction in flavonoid metabolism. — J. Pl. Physiol.133: 743–746.
—, 1988: Chalcone synthases from spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) II. Immunofluorescence and immunogold localization. — Planta173: 544–553.
—, 1993: The significance of the anther tapetum in the biochemistry of pollen pigmentation—an overview. — Pl. Syst. Evol, Suppl.7: 117–125.
Bierhorst, D. W., 1968: On theStromatopteridaceae (fam. nov.) and on thePsilotaceae. — Phytomorphol.18: 232–268.
—, 1977: The systematic position ofPsilotum andTmesipteris. — Brittonia29: 3–13.
Binford, R., 1907: The development of the sporangium ofLygodium. — Bot. Gaz.44: 214–224.
Bower, F. O., 1908: The origin of a land flora. — London: Macmillan.
—, 1923: The ferns (Filicales),I. — London: Cambridge University Press.
Brisson, J. D., Peterson, R. L., Robb, J., Rauser, W., E., Ellis, B. E., 1977: Correlated phenolic histochemistry using light, transmission and scanning electron microscopy, with examples taken from phytopathological problems. — Scanning electron microscopy,II: pp. 667–676. — Chicago: I.I.T. Research Institute Chicago
Brooks, J., Grant, P. R., Muir, M., van Gijzel, P., Shaw, G., (Eds) 1971: Sporopollenin. — London, New York: Academic Press.
Brown, R. C., Lemmon, B. E., 1984a: Spore wall development inAndreaea (Musci: Andreaeopsida). — Amer. J. Bot.71: 412–420.
—, 1984b: Ultrastructure of sporogenesis in the mossAmblystegium riparium II. Spore wall development. — J. Hattori Bot. Lab.57: 139–152.
—, 1990: Sporogenesis in bryophytes. — InBlackmore, S., Knox, R. B., (Eds): Microspores—evolution and ontogeny, pp. 55–94. — London: Academic Press.
—, 1991: Sporogenesis in simple land plants. — InBlackmore, S., Barnes, S. H., (Eds): Pollen and spores—patterns of diversification, pp. 9–24. — Syst. Assoc. Spec. Vol.44. — Oxford: Clarendon.
Buchen, B., Sievers, A., 1981: Sporogenesis and pollen grain formation. — InKiermayer, O., (Ed.): Cytomorphogenesis in plants, pp. 349–376. — Wien: Springer.
Caldwell, M. M., Robberecht, R., Flint, S. D., 1983: Internal filters: prospects for UV-acclimation in higher plants. — Physiol. Pl.58: 445–450.
Cerceau-Larrival, M.-T., Abadie, M., Albertini, L., Audran, J.-C., Cornu, A., Cousin, M.-T., Dan Dicko-Zafimahova, L., Duc, G., Ferguson, I. K., Hideux, M., Nilsson, S., Roland-Heydacker, F., Souvré, A., 1981: Relations sporophyte-gamétophyte: assise tapétale-pollen. — Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. 13e sér.,2: 69–92.
Chen, Z.-K., Wang, F.-H., Zhou, F., 1988: On the origin, development and ultrastructure of the orbicules and pollenkitt in the tapetum ofAnemarrhena asphodeloides (Liliaceae). — Grana27: 273–282.
Chiarugi, A., 1927: L'evoluzione delle cellule del tappeto e la formazione del periplasmodio in alcuneAsteraceae. — Nuovo Giorn. Bot. Ital.34: 783–828.
Ciampolini, F., Nepi, M., Pacini, E., 1993: Tapetum development inCucurbita pepo (Cucurbitaceae). — Pl. Syst. Evol., Suppl.7: 13–22.
Colhoun, C. W., Steer, M. W., 1981: Microsporogenesis and the mechanism of cytoplasmic male sterility in maize. — Ann. Bot.48: 417–424.
—, 1984: Acetolysis-resistant structures in tapetal cells of malesterile barley. — Caryologia37: 309–322.
Collinson, M. E., Hemsley, A. R., Taylor, W. A., 1993: Sporopollenin exhibiting colloidal organization in spore walls. — Grana, Suppl.1: 31–39.
Crang, R., May, G., 1974: Evidence for silicon as a prevalent elemental component in pollen wall structure. — Canad. J. Bot.52: 2171–2174.
Dickinson, H. G., 1970a: The fine structure of the peritapetal membrane investing the microsporangium ofPinus banksiana. — New Phytol.69: 1065–1068.
—, 1970b: Ultrastructural aspects of primexine formation in the microspore tetrad ofLilium longiflorum. — Cytobiol.1: 437–449.
—, 1973: The role of plastids in the formation of pollen grain coatings. — Cytobios8: 25–40.
—, 1976a: Common factors in exine deposition. — InFerguson, I. K., Muller, J., (Eds): The evolutionary significance of the exine, pp. 67–89. — Linn. Soc. Symp. Ser.1: London: Academic Press.
—, 1976b: The deposition of acetolysis-resistant polymers during the formation of pollen. — Pollen & Spores18: 321–334.
—, 1972: The role of the tapetum in the formation of sporopollenin-containing structures during sporogenesis inPinus banksiana. — Planta107: 205–215.
—, 1976a: Development of the tapetum inPinus banksiana preceding sporogenesis. — Ann. Bot.40: 103–113.
—, 1976b: The changes in the tapetum ofPinus banksiana accompanying formation and maturation of the pollen. — Ann. Bot.40: 1101–1109.
—, 1973: The formation of tryphine coating the pollen grains ofRaphanus and its properties relating to the self-incompatibility system. — Proc. Roy. Soc. LondonB184: 149–165.
—, 1976: The development of patterning in the alveolar sexine ofCosmos bipinnatus. — New Phytol.76: 543–550.
—, 1986: The generation of patterning at the plasma membrane of the young microspores ofLilium. — InBlackmore, S., Ferguson, I. K., (Eds): Pollen and spores—form and function, pp. 1–17. — Linn. Soc. Symp. Ser.12. — London: Academic Press.
Dobson, H. E. M., 1988: Survey of pollen and pollenkitt lipids — chemical cues to flower visitors? — Amer. J. Bot.75: 170–182.
Dunbar, A., 1973: Pollen ontogeny in some species ofCampanulaceae. A study by electron microscopy. — Bot. Not.126: 277–315.
Echlin, P., 1971a: The role of the tapetum during microsporogenesis of angiosperms. — InHeslop-Harrison, J., (Ed.): Pollen — development and physiology, pp. 41–61. — London: Butterworths.
—, 1971b: Production of sporopollenin by the tapetum. — InBrooks, J., Grant, P. R., Muir, M. D., van Gijzel, P., Shaw, G., (Eds): Sporopollenin, pp. 220–247. — London, New York: Academic Press.
El-Ghazaly, G., 1990: Development of pollen grains ofCatharanthus roseus (Apocynaceae). — Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol.64: 165–174.
Erdelská, O., 1983: Microcinematographical investigations of the female gametophyte, fertilization and early embryo and endosperm development.—7th Intern. Symp. on fertilization and embryogenesis in ovulated plants. High Tatra, Rackovadolina, Czechoslovakia, pp. 49–52. — Bratislava: VEDA.
Erdtman, G., Sorsa, P., (Eds), 1971: Pollen and spore morphology/plant taxonomy (Pteridophyta). — Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell.
Fitzgerald, M. A., Calder, D.M., Knox, R. B., 1993: Secretory events in the freeze-substituted tapetum of the orchidPterostylis concinna. — Pl. Syst. Evol., Suppl.7: 53–62.
Gabarayeva, N. I., 1993: Hypothetical ways of exine structure determination. — Grana, Suppl.2: 54–59.
Garrity, D. P., Vidal, E. T., O'Toole, J. C., 1984: Genotypic variation in the thickness of silica deposition of flowering rice spikelets. — Ann. Bot.54: 413–421.
Godwin, H., 1968: Pollen exine formation. — Nature220: 389.
Gubatz, S., Arendt, S., Rittscher, M., Wiermann, R., 1992: Recent aspects of sporopollenin biosynthesis. — InOttaviano, E., Mulcahy, D. L., Sari Gorla, M., Bergamini Mulcahy., G., (Eds): Angiosperm pollen and ovules, pp. 187–190. — Wien: Springer.
—, 1993: Tracer experiments on sporopollenin biosynthesis. — Grana, Suppl.1: 12–17.
Gupta, S. C., Nanda, K., 1972: Occurrence and histochemistry of the anther tapetal membrane. — Grana12: 99–104.
Hallam, N. D., Luff, S. E., 1980: Fine structural changes in the mesophyll tissue of the leaves ofXerophyta villosa during desiccation. — Bot. Gaz.141: 173–179.
Hemsley, A. R., Barrie, P. J., Chaloner, W. G., Scott, A. C., 1993: The composition of sporopollenin and its use in living and fossil plant systematics. — Grana, Suppl.1: 2–11.
—, 1992: Colloidal crystal-like structure of sporopollenin in the megaspore walls of recentSelaginella and similar fossil spores. — Bot. J. Linn. Soc.108: 307–320.
Herd, Y. R., Cutter, E. G., Watanabe, I., 1985: A light and electron microscopic study of microsporogenesis inAzolla microphylla. — Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh86 B: 53–58.
Heslop-Harrison, J., 1963a: An ultrastructural study of pollen wall ontogeny inSilene pendula. — Grana Palynol.4: 7–24.
—, 1963b: Ultrastructural aspects of differentiation in sporogenous tissue. — Symp. Soc. Experim. Biol.17: 315–340.
—, 1968: Tapetal origin of pollen coat substances inLilium. — New Phytol.67: 779–786.
—, 1969: An acetolysis resistant membrane investing tapetum and sporogenous tissue in the anthers of certainCompositae. — Canad. J. Bot.47: 541–542.
—, 1971: The pollen wall: structure and development. — InHeslop-Harrison, J., (Ed.): Pollen—development and physiology, pp. 75–98. — London: Butterworths.
—, 1976: The adaptive significance of the exine. — Linn. Soc. Symp. Ser.1: 27–37. — London: Academic Press.
Hess, M. W., Frosch, A., 1994: Subunits of forming pollen exine and Ubisch bodies as seen in freeze substitutedLedebouria socialis (Hyacinthaceae). — Protoplasma182: 10–14.
—, 1994: Ultrastructural observations on anther tapetum development of freeze-fixedLedebouria socialis Roth (Hyacinthaceae). — Planta192: 421–430.
Hesse, M., 1980: Pollenkitt is lacking inGnetum gnemon (Gnetaceae). — Pl. Syst. Evol.136: 41–46.
—, 1984: Pollenkitt is lacking inGnetatae:Ephedra andWelwitschia; further proof for its restriction to the angiosperms. — Pl. Syst. Evol.144: 9–16.
—, 1986a: Nature form and function of pollen-connecting threads in angiosperms. — InBlackmore, S., Ferguson, I.K., (Eds): Pollen and spores—form and function, pp. 109–118. — Linn. Soc. Symp. Ser.12. — London: Academic Press.
—, 1986b: Orbicules and the ektexine are homologous sporopollenin concretions inSpermatophyta. — Pl. Syst. Evol.153: 37–48.
—, 1991: Cytology and morphogenesis of pollen and spores. — Progr. Bot.52: 19–34. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer.
—, 1993: Pollenkitt development and composition inTilia platyphyllos (Tiliaceae) analysed by conventional and energy filtering TEM. — Pl. Syst. Evol., Suppl.7: 39–52.
—, 1993: Recent trends in tapetum research. A cytological and methodological review. — Pl. Syst. Evol., Suppl.7: 127–145.
—Pacini, E., Willemse, M., (Eds), 1993: The tapetum cytology, function, biochemistry and evolution. — Pl. Syst. Evol., Suppl.7.
Hideux, M., Abadie, M., 1981: The anther ofSaxifraga cymbalaria L. ssp.huetiana (Boiss.)Engl. andIrmsch: a study by electron microscopy (SEM & TEM) 3. Dynamics of the relationships between tapetal and sporal cells. — Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot., Paris, 13e sér.2 & 3: 27–37.
—, 1986: Ontogenetic constraints on function in pollen of someSaxifraga L. species. — InBlackmore, S., Ferguson, I. K., (Eds): Pollen and spores — form and function, pp. 35–48. — Linn. Soc. Symp. Ser.12. — London: Academic Press.
Hoffman, F. M., Hillson, C. J., 1979: Effects of silicon on the life cycle ofEquisetum hyemale L. — Bot. Gaz.140: 127–132.
Horner, H. T., 1977: A comparative light and electron-microscopic study of microsporogenesis in male-fertile and cytoplasmic male-sterile sunflower (Helianthus annuus). — Amer. J. Bot.64: 745–759.
Jardinaud, M. F., Souvré, A., Alibert, G., 1993: Nuclease activities inTradescantia paludosa andBrassica napus pollen and tapetum. — Pl. Syst. Evol., Suppl.7: 91–97.
Jonker, F. P., 1971: Summary and general discussion. — InBrooks, J., Grant, P. R., Muir, M. D., van Gijzel, P., Shaw, G., (Eds): Sporopollenin, pp. 686–707. — London, New York, San Francisco: Academic Press.
Juel, H. O., 1915: Untersuchungen über die Auflösung der Tapetenzellen in den Pollensäcken der Angiospermen. — Jahrb. Wiss. Bot.56: 337–364.
Kamelina, O. P., 1988: Types of tapetum in the angiosperms. — Ann. Sci. Univ. Reims A.R.E.R.S.23: 71–73.
Keijzer, C. J., 1987: The process of anther dehiscence and pollen dispersal. II. The formation and the transfer mechanism of pollenkitt, cell-wall development of the loculus tissues and a function of orbicules in pollen dispersal. — New Phytol.105: 499–507.
Kenrick, J., Knox, R. B., 1979: Pollen development and cytochemistry in some Australian species ofAcacia. — Austral. J. Bot.27: 413–427.
Klungness, L. M., Peng, Y.-S., 1984: A histochemical study of pollen digestion in the alimentary canal of honeybees (Apis mellifera L.). — J. Insect Physiol.30: 511–521.
Kurmann, M. H., 1989: Pollen wall formation inAbies concolor and a discussion on wall layer homologies. — Canad. J. Bot.67: 2489–2504.
—, 1990a: Development of the pollen wall inTsuga canadensis (Pinaceae). — Nordic J. Bot.10: 63–78.
—, 1990b: Exine formation inCunninghamia lanceolate (Taxodiaceae). — Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol.64: 175–179.
—, 1990c: Exine ontogeny in conifers. — InBlackmore, S., Knox, R. B., (Eds): Microspores—evolution and ontogeny, pp. 157–172. — London: Academic Press.
Lombardo, G., Carraro, L., 1976: Tapetal ultrastructural changes during pollen development. III. Studies onGentiana acaulis. — Caryologia29: 345–349.
Luft, J. H., 1961: Improvements in epoxy embedding methods. — J. Biophys. Biochem. Cytol.9: 409.
Lugardon, B., 1971: Contribution à la connaissance de la morphogenèse et de la structure des parois sporales chez les Filicinées isosporées. — Thesis, Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France.
—, 1973: Sur les parois sporales dePsilotum nudum Sw. et leur structure fine. — Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. D, Paris,276: 1277–1280.
—, 1974: La structure fine de l'exospore et de la périspore des Filicinées Isosporées. II.Filicales. Commentaires. — Pollen & Spores16: 161–226.
—, 1978: Comparison between pollen and pteridophyte spore walls. — IV. Int. Palynol. Conf. Lucknow, (1976–1977)1: 199–206.
—, 1979: Sur la formation du sporoderme chezPsilotum triquetrum Sw. (Psilotaceae). — Grana18: 145–165.
—, 1981: Les globules des Filicinées, homologues des corps d'Ubisch des spermatophytes. — Pollen & Spores23: 93–124.
—, 1990: Pteridophyte sporogenesis: a survey of spore wall ontogeny and fine structure in a polyphyletic plant group. — InBlackmore, S., Knox, R. B., (Eds): Microspores — evolution and ontogeny, pp. 95–120. — London: Academic Press.
Maeda, Y., 1984: The presence and location of sporopollenin in fruiting bodies of the cellular slime moulds. — J. Cell Sci.66: 297–308.
Maheshwari, P., 1950: Introduction to the embryology of angiosperms. — New York: McGraw-Hill.
Mepham, R. H., Lane, G. R., 1968: Exine and the role of the tapetum in pollen development. — Nature219: 961–962.
—, 1969a: Formation and development of the tapetal periplasmodium inTradescantia bracteata. — Protoplasma68: 175–192.
—, 1969b: Role of the tapetum in the development ofTradescantia pollen. — Nature221: 282–284.
Morbelli, M. A., Rowley, J. R., 1993: Megaspore development inSelaginella. I. “Wicks”, their presence, ultrastructure and presumed function. — Sex. Pl. Reprod.6: 98–107.
O'Brien, T. P., McCully, M. E., 1981: The study of plant structure—principles and selected methods. — Melbourne: Thermarcarphi.
Owens, S. J., Dickinson, H. G., 1983: Pollen wall development inGibasis (Commelinaceae). — Ann. Bot.51: 1–15.
—Sheldon, J. M., Dickinson, H. G., 1990: The microtubular cytoskeleton during pollen development. — InHesse, M., Ehrendorfer, F., (Eds): Morphology, development and systematic relevance of pollen and spores, pp. 31–37. — Pl. Syst. Evol, Suppl.5.
Pacini, E., Casadoro, G., 1981: Tapetum plastids ofOlea europaea. — Protoplasma106: 289–297.
—, 1991: Diversification and evolution of the tapetum. — InBlackmore, S., Barnes, S. H., (Eds): Pollen and spores — patterns of diversification, pp. 301–316. — Syst. Assoc. Spec. Vol.44. — Oxford: Clarendon Press.
—, 1993: Role of the tapetum in pollen and spore dispersal. — Pl. Syst. Evol., Suppl.7: 1–11.
—, 1989: Ontogeny of intruding non-periplasmodial tapetum in the wild chicory,Cichorium intybus (Compositae). — Pl. Syst. Evol.167: 149–164.
—, 1979: The ultrastructure of pollen grain development in the olive (Olea europaea). II. Secretion by the tapetal cells. — New Phytol.83: 165–174.
—, 1983: The ultrastructure of the formation and development of the amoeboid tapetum inArum italicum Miller. — Protoplasma117: 116–129.
—, 1985a: Pollen grain development in the oliveOlea europaea (L.): ultrastructure and anomalies. — InWillemse, M.T.M. Went, J. L., (Eds): Sexual reproduction in seed plants, ferns and mosses, pp. 25–27. — Wageningen: Pudoc.
—,Hesse, M., 1985b: The tapetum: its form, function and possible phylogeny inEmbryophyta. — Pl. Syst. Evol.149: 155–185.
Page, C. N., 1979: Experimental aspects of fern ecology. — InDyer, A. F., (Ed.): The experimental biology of ferns, pp. 552–589. — London: Academic Press.
Parkinson, B. M., 1987: Tapetal organization during sporogenesis inPsilotum nudum. — Ann. Bot.60: 353–360.
—, 1988: A tapetal membrane inPsilotum nudum (L.)Beauv. — Ann. Bot.61: 695–703.
—, 1990: Silicon detected in the spore wall ofSchizaea pectinata (Schizaeaceae). — Comm. Electron Microsc. Soc. South Africa20: 87–88.
—, 1991: An investigation of sporangial development, sporogenesis and tapetal organisation inSchizaea pectinata (L.)Sw. (Schizaeaceae). — Ph.D. thesis, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
—, 1992: The development of the spore wall inSchizaea pectinata (Schizaeaceae). — Comm. Electron Microsc. Soc. South Africa22: 79–80.
— 1995: Spore wall development inSchizaea pectinata (Schizaeaceae: Pteridophyta). — Grana (in press).
Pennell, R. I., Bell, P. R., 1986: Microsporogenesis inTaxus baccata L.: the formation of the tetrad and development of the microspores. — Ann. Bot.57: 545–555.
Periasamy, K., Amalathas, J., 1991: Absence of callose and tetrad in the microsporogenesis ofPandanus odoratissimus with well-formed pollen. — Ann. Bot.67: 29–33.
—, 1981: Development of the anther ofAnnona squamosa L. — Ann. Bot.48: 885–893.
Pettitt, J. M., 1979a: Ultrastructure and cytochemistry of spore wall morphogenesis. — InDyer A. F., (Ed.): The experimental biology of the ferns, pp. 213–252. — London: Academic Press.
—, 1979b: Developmental mechanisms in heterospory: cytochemical demonstration of spore wall enzymes associated with B-lectins, polysaccharides and lipids in water ferns. — J. Cell Sci.38: 61–82.
—, 1981: Reproduction in seagrasses: pollen development inThalasia hemprichii, Halophila stipulacea andThalassodendron ciliatum. — Ann. Bot.48: 609–622.
Plumbe, M., Willmer, C. M., 1986: Phytoalexins, water-stress and stomata. III. The effects of some phenolics, fatty acids and some other compounds on stomatal responses. — New Phytol.103: 17–22.
Prantl, K., 1881: Untersuchungen zur Morphologie der Gefässkryptogamen. 2. Heft. Die Schizaeaceen, morphologisch und systematisch bearbeitet. — Leipzig.
Reznickova, S. A., Dickinson, H. G., 1982: Ultrastructural aspects of storage lipid mobilization in the tapetum ofLilium hybrida var. Enchantment. — Planta155: 400–408.
Rittscher, M., Wiermann, R., 1983: Occurrence of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) in isolated tapetum cells ofTulipa anthers. — Protoplasma118: 219–224.
Robert, D., 1970: Participation des cellules de l'assise tapétale du sporange à l'édification des parois microsporales chez une Selaginelle,Selaginella kraussiana A. Br. — Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. D, Paris,271: 648–651.
—, 1971a: Etude, en microscopie électronique, des modalités d'édification des parois microsporales chez leSelaginella selaginoides L. Mise en place du feuillet externe. — Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. D, Paris,273: 332–335.
—, 1971b: Etude, en microscopie électronique, des modalités d'édification des parois microsporales chez leSelaginella selaginoides L. Mise en place du feuillet interne. — Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. D, Paris,273: 1933–1936.
Rowley, J. R., 1973: Formation of pollen exine bacules and microchannels on a glycocalyx. — Grana13: 129–138.
—, 1987: Plasmodesmata-like processes of tapetal cells. — La Cellule74: 229–241.
—, 1993: Cycles of hyperactivity in tapetal cells. — Pl. Syst. Evol., Suppl.7: 23–37.
—, 1993: Exine receptors. — Grana, Suppl.2: 21–25.
—, 1985a: Cell differentiation in microsporangia ofPinus sylvestris. II. Early pachytene. — Nordic J. Bot.5: 241–254.
—, 1985b: Cell differentiation in microsporangia ofPinus sylvestris. III. Late pachytene. — Nordic J. Bot.5: 255–271.
—, 1987: Origin and structure of Ubisch bodies inPinus sylvestris. — Acta Soc. Bot. Polon.56: 215–227.
—, 1988: Cell differentiation in microsporangia ofPinus sylvestris. Diplotene and the diffuse stage. — Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. Paris, 13e sér.,9: 1–28.
—, 1993: Cell differentiation in microsporangia ofPinus sylvestris. V. Diakinesis to tetrad formation. — Nordic J. Bot.13: 67–82.
—, 1992: Cyclic invasion of tapetal cells into loculi during microspore development inNymphaea colorata (Nymphaceae). — Amer. J. Bot.79: 801–808.
Said, C., 1989: Some characteristics of pollen wall cytochemistry and ultrastracture in Japanese larch (Larix leptolepis Gord.). — Sex. Pl. Reprod.2: 77–84.
Sangster, A. G., 1978: Silicon in the roots of higher plants. — Amer. J. Bot.65: 929–935.
Schlag, M., Hesse, M., 1993: Morphogenesis of the sporoderm inPolystachia pubescens (Orchidaceae). — Grana32: 22–28.
Schraudolf, H., 1984: Ultrastructural events during sporogenesis ofAnemia phyllitidis (L.)Sw. I. Spore wall formation. — Beitr. Biol. Pfl.59: 237–260.
Seabury, F. Jr., 1975: Sporogenesis in selected genera of theMusci. — Ph.D. Thesis, Texas A & M University, College Station.
Shaw, G., 1971: The chemistry of sporopollenin. — InBrooks, J., Grant, P. R., Muir, M., van Gijzel, P., Shaw, G., (Eds): Sporopollenin, pp. 305–348. — London, New York: Academic Press.
Sheffield, E., Bell, P. R., 1979: Ultrastructural aspects of sporogenesis in a fern,Pteridium aquilinum (L.)Kuhn. — Ann. Bot.44: 393–405.
Sheldon, J. M., Dickinson, H. G., 1983: Determination of patterning in the pollen wall ofLilium henryi. — J. Cell Sci.63: 191–208.
—, 1986: Pollen wall formation inLilium: the effect of chaotropic agents and the organisation of the microtubular cytoskeleton during pattern development. — Planta168: 11–23.
Singh, H., Owens, J. N., 1983: Sexual reproduction of Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii). — Canad. J. Bot.59: 793–810.
—,Dietrich, H. F., 1983: Ultrastructure and development of the microsporangium ofPseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.)Franco. I. Dormant stages. — Amer. J. Bot.70: 1272–1280.
Southworth, D., 1985: Pollen exine substructure. I.Lilium longiflorum. — Amer. J. Bot.72: 1274–1283.
—, 1986a: Substructural organization of pollen exines. — InBlackmore, S., Ferguson, I. K., (Eds): Pollen and spores—form and function, pp. 61–69. — Linn. Soc. Symp. Ser.12. — London: Academic Press.
—, 1986b: Pollen exine substructure III.Juniperus communis. — Canad. J. Bot.64: 983–987.
—, 1990: Exine biochemistry. — InBlackmore, S., Knox, R. B., (Eds): Microspores: evolution and ontogeny, pp. 193–212. — London: Academic Press.
Sporne, K. R., 1973: A note on the evolutionary status of tapetal types in dicotyledons. — New Phytol.72: 1173–1174.
Staiger, D., Apel, K., 1993: Molecular characterization of two cDNAs fromSinapis alba L. expressed specifically at an early stage of tapetum development. — Pl. J.4: 697–703.
—, 1994: The proteins encoded by two tapetum-specific transcripts,Satap35 andSatap44, fromSinapis alba L. are localized in the exine cell wall layer of developing microspores. — Planta192: 221–231.
Steer, M. W., 1977a: Differentiation of the tapetum inAvena. I. The cell surface. — J. Cell Sci.25: 125–138.
—, 1977b: Differentiation of the tapetum inAvena. II. The endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. — J. Cell Sci.28: 71–86.
Stone, D. E., Sellers, S. C., Kress, J., 1979: Ontogeny of exineless pollen inHeliconia, a banana relative. — Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard.66: 701–730.
Takahashi, M., 1987: Development of omniaperturate pollen inTrillium kamtschaticum (Liliaceae). — Amer. J. Bot.74: 1842–1852.
Testillano, P. S., Gonzalez-Melendi, P., Fadon, B., Sanchez-Pina, A., Olmedilla, A., del Carmen Risueño, M., 1993: Immunolocalization of nuclear antigens and ultrastructural cytochemistry on tapetal cells ofScilla peruviana andCapsicum anuum. — Pl. Syst. Evol., Suppl.7: 75–90.
Tischler, G., 1915: Die Periplasmodiumbildung in den Antheren der Commelinaceen und Ausblicke auf das Verhalten der Tapetenzellen bei den übrigen Monokotylen. — Jahrb. Wiss. Bot.55: 53–90.
Tiwari, S. C., Gunning, B. E. S., 1986a: An ultrastructural, cytochemical and immuno-fluorescence study of postmeiotic development of plasmodial tapetum inTradescantia virginiana L. and its relevance to the pathway of sporopollenin secretion. — Protoplasma133: 100–114.
—, 1986b: Colchicine inhibits plasmodium formation and disrupts pathways of sporopollenin secretion in the anther tapetum ofTradescantia virginiana L. — Protoplasma133: 115–128.
—, 1986c: Development of tapetum and microspores inCanna L.: an example of an invasive but non-syncytial tapetum. — Ann. Bot.57: 557–563.
—, 1986d: Development and cell surface of a non-syncytial invasive tapetum inCanna: ultrastructural, freeze-substitution, cytochemical and immuno-fluorescence study. — Protoplasma134: 1–16.
Tryon, A. F., 1985: Spores of myrmecophytic ferns. — Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh86 B: 105–110.
—, 1978: Wall structure and mineral content inSelaginella spores. — Pollen & Spores10: 315–340.
—, 1991: Spores of thePteridophyta. — New York: Springer.
Tryon, R. M., Tryon, A. F., 1982: Ferns and allied plants with special reference to tropical America. — New York, Heidelberg, Berlin: Springer.
Uehara, K., Kurita, S., 1986: Ultrastructure of the sporoderm morphogenesis inPsilotum nudum (L.)Griseb. — Res. Inst. Evol. Biol. Sci. Rep.3: 171–181.
—, 1989a: An ultrastructural study of spore wall morphogenesis inEquisetum arvense. — Amer. J. Bot.76: 939–951.
—, 1989b: Ultrastructural study of spore wall morphogenesis inOphioglossum thermale Kom. var.nipponicum (Miyabe etKudo)Nishida. — Bot. Mag. Tokyo102: 413–427.
—, 1991: Ultrastructural study on spore wall morphogenesis inLycopodium clavatum (Lycopodiaceae). — Amer. J. Bot.78: 24–36.
—,Sahashi, N., Ohmoto, T., 1991: Ultrastructural study on microspore wall morphogenesis inIsoëtes japonica (Isoëtaceae). — Amer. J. Bot.78: 1182–1190.
Vasil, I. K., Aldrich, H. C., 1970: A histochemical and ultrastructural study of the ontogeny and differentiation of pollen inPodocarpus macrophyllus D. Don. — Protoplasma71: 1–37.
Van Uffelen, G. A., 1991: The control of spore wall formation. — InBlackmore, S., Barnes, S. H., (Eds): Pollen and spores — patterns of diversification, pp. 89–102. — Syst. Assoc. Spec. Vol.44. — Oxford: Clarendon.
Walker, T. G., 1985: Spore filaments in the ant-fernLecanopteris mirabilis—an alternative viewpoint. — Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh86 B: 111–114.
Walles, B., Rowley, J. R., 1982: Cell differentiation in microsporangia ofPinus sylvestris special attention to the tapetum. I. The pre- and early-meiotic periods. — Nordic J. Bot.2: 53–70.
Waterkeyn, L., 1962: Les parois microsporocytaires de nature callosique chezHelleborus etTradescantia. — Cellule62: 225.
Waterkeyn, L., Bienfait, A., 1970: On a special function of the callosic special wall inIpomoea purpurea (L.)Roth. — Grana10: 13–20.
Weber, M., 1991: The transfer of pollenkitt inSmyrnium perfoliatum (Apiaceae). — Ann. Bot.68: 63–68.
—, 1992: The formation of pollenkitt inApium nodiflorum (Apiaceae). — Ann. Bot.70: 573–577.
Wiermann, R., Gubatz, S., 1992: Pollen wall and sporopollenin. — Intern. Rev. Cytol.140: 35–72.
Willemse, M. T. M., 1971a: Morphological and quantitative changes in the population of cell organelles during microsporogenesis ofPinus sylvestris L. I. Morphological changes from zygotene until prometaphase I. — Acta Bot. Neerl.20: 261–274.
—, 1971b: Morphological and quantitative changes in the population of cell organelles during microsporogenesis ofPinus sylvestris L. III. Morphological changes during the tetrad stage and in the young microspore. A quantitative approach to the changes in the population of cell organelles. — Acta Bot. Neerl.20: 498–523.
—, 1971c: Morphological changes in the tapetal cell during microsporogenesis ofPinus sylvestris L. — Acta Bot. Neerl.20: 611–623.
—, 1971d: Morphological and fluorescence microscopical investigation on sporopollenin formation inPinus sylvestris andGasteria verrucosa. — InBrooks, J., Grant, P. R., Muir, M. D., van Gijzel, P., Shaw, G., (Eds): Sporopollenin, pp. 68–107. — London: Academic Press.
Wolter, M., Schill, R., 1986: Ontogenie von Pollen, Massulae und Pollinien bei den Orchideen. — Trop. Subtrop. Pflanzenwelt56: 7–93.
—, 1988: The ontogeny of pollinia and elastoviscin in the anther ofDoritis pulcherrima (Orchidaceae). — Nordic J. Bot.8: 77–88.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Parkinson, B.M., Pacini, E. A comparison of tapetal structure and function in pteridophytes and angiosperms. Pl Syst Evol 198, 55–88 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00985107
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00985107