Abstract
Objective
We aimed to assess the association between meditation practice and cognitive function over time among middle-aged and older adults.
Method
We included Health and Retirement Study (HRS) participants assessed for meditation practice in the year 2000 as part of the HRS alternative medicine module (n = 1,160) and were followed up for outcomes over 2000–2016 period. We examined the association between meditation ≥ twice a week vs none/less frequent practice and changes in the outcomes of recall, global cognitive function, and quantitative reasoning using generalized linear regression models. Stratified analyses among persons with/without self-reported baseline depressive symptoms were conducted to assess the link between meditation and cognitive outcomes.
Results
Among our full study sample, meditation ≥ twice a week was not significantly associated with total recall [β = -0.20; 95% CI: -0.97, 0.57; p = 0.61], global cognitive function [β = 0.05; 95% CI: -1.01, 1.12; p = 0.92], and quantitative reasoning [β = -11.48; 95% CI: -31.27, 8.32; p = 0.26]. However, among those who did not have self-reported depressive symptoms at baseline, meditation ≥ twice a week was associated with improvement in cognitive outcomes such as total recall [β = 0.11; 95% CI: 0.03, 0.18; p = 0.01] and global cognitive function [β = 0.22; 95% CI: 0.05, 0.40; p = 0.01] over time.
Conclusions
Frequent meditation practice might have a protective effect on cognitive outcomes over time, but this protection could be limited to those without self-reported baseline depressive symptoms. Future studies could incorporate more precise meditation practice assessment, investigate the effect of meditation on cognitive outcomes over time, and include more rigorous study designs with randomized group assignment.
Pre-registration
This study is not preregistered.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
This study used publicly available data from the Health and Retirement Study. Accessed from: https://hrs.isr.umich.edu/data-products.
References
Berk, L., Hotterbeekx, R., van Os, J., & van Boxtel, M. (2018). Mindfulness-based stress reduction in middle-aged and older adults with memory complaints: A mixed-methods study. Aging & Mental Health, 22(9), 1107–1114. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2017.1347142
Berk, L., van Boxtel, M., & van Os, J. (2017). Can mindfulness-based interventions influence cognitive functioning in older adults? A review and considerations for future research. Aging & Mental Health, 21(11), 1113–1120. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2016.1247423
Cardoso, R., de Souza, E., Camano, L., & Leite, J. R. (2004). Meditation in health: An operational definition. Brain Research Protocols, 14(1), 58–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresprot.2004.09.002
Cásedas, L., Pirruccio, V., Vadillo, M. A., & Lupianez, J. (2020). Does mindfulness meditation training enhance executive control? A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials in adults. Mindfulness, 11(2), 411–424. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-019-01279-4
Chandla, S. S., Sood, S., Dogra, R., Das, S., Shukla, S. K., & Gupta, S. (2013). Effect of short-term practice of pranayamic breathing exercises on cognition, anxiety, general well being and heart rate variability. Journal of the Indian Medical Association, 111(10), 662–665.
Chen, S. T., Volle, D., Jalil, J., Wu, P., & Small, G. W. (2019). Health-promoting strategies for the aging brain. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 27(3), 213–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2018.12.016
Chodosh, J., Seeman, T. E., Keeler, E., Sewall, A., Hirsch, S. H., Guralnik, J. M., & Reuben, D. B. (2004). Cognitive decline in high-functioning older persons is associated with an increased risk of hospitalization. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 52(9), 1456–1462. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2004.52407.x
Cramer, H., Hall, H., Leach, M., Frawley, J., Zhang, Y., Leung, B., Adams, J., & Lauche, R. (2016). Prevalence, patterns, and predictors of meditation use among US adults: A nationally representative survey. Scientific Reports, 6, 36760. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep36760
Dickinson, W. J., Potter, G. G., Hybels, C. F., McQuoid, D. R., & Steffens, D. C. (2011). Change in stress and social support as predictors of cognitive decline in older adults with and without depression. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 26(12), 1267–1274. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.2676
Doshi, J. A., Cen, L., & Polsky, D. (2008). Depression and retirement in late middle-aged U.S. workers. Health Services Research, 43(2), 693–713. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6773.2007.00782.x
Fam, J., Sun, Y., Qi, P., Lau, R. C., Feng, L., Kua, E. H., & Mahendran, R. (2020). Mindfulness practice alters brain connectivity in community-living elders with mild cognitive impairment. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 74(4), 257–262. https://doi.org/10.1111/pcn.12972
Farhang, M., Miranda-Castillo, C., Rubio, M., & Furtado, G. (2019). Impact of mind-body interventions in older adults with mild cognitive impairment: A systematic review. International Psychogeriatrics / IPA, 31(5), 643–666. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610218002302
Gard, T., Hölzel, B. K., & Lazar, S. W. (2014a). The potential effects of meditation on age-related cognitive decline: A systematic review. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1307, 89–103. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12348
Gard, T., Taquet, M., Dixit, R., Hölzel, B. K., de Montjoye, Y.-A., Brach, N., Salat, D. H., Dickerson, B. C., Gray, J. R., & Lazar, S. W. (2014b). Fluid intelligence and brain functional organization in aging yoga and meditation practitioners. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 6, 76. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2014.00076
Guglani, L., Havstad, S. L., Johnson, C. C., Ownby, D. R., & Joseph, C. L. (2012). Effect of depressive symptoms on asthma intervention in urban teens. Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology, 109(4), 237–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anai.2012.07.010
Health and Retirement Study. (2004). (Experimental Modules) public use dataset. Produced and distributed by the University of Michigan with funding from the National Institute on Aging (grant number NIA U01AG009740). Ann Arbor, MI. https://hrs.isr.umich.edu/documentation/modules
Health and Retirement Study. (2020). (RAND HRS Longitudinal File 2016) public use dataset. Produced and distributed by the University of Michigan with funding from the National Institute on Aging (grant number NIA U01AG009740). Ann Arbor, MI.
Innes, K. E., Montgomery, C., Selfe, T. K., Wen, S., Khalsa, D. S., & Flick, M. (2021). Incorporating a usual care comparator into a study of meditation and music listening for older adults with subjective cognitive decline: a randomized feasibility trial. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease Reports, 5(1), 187–206. https://doi.org/10.3233/ADR-200249
Innes, K. E., Selfe, T. K., Brundage, K., Montgomery, C., Wen, S., Kandati, S., Bowles, H., Khalsa, D. S., & Huysmans, Z. (2018). Effects of meditation and music-listening on blood biomarkers of cellular aging and Alzheimer’s disease in adults with subjective cognitive decline: an exploratory randomized clinical trial. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 66(3), 947–970. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-180164
Jeynes, W. (2020). A meta-analysis on the relationship between prayer and student outcomes. Education and Urban Society, 52(8), 1223–1237. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124519896841
Jha, A. P., Krompinger, J., & Baime, M. J. (2007). Mindfulness training modifies subsystems of attention. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 7(2), 109–119. https://doi.org/10.3758/CABN.7.2.109
Jors, K., Büssing, A., Hvidt, N. C., & Baumann, K. (2015). Personal prayer in patients dealing with chronic illness: a review of the research literature. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2015, 927973. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/927973
Joshi, M., & Telles, S. (2008). Immediate effects of right and left nostril breathing on verbal and spatial scores. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 52(2), 197–200.
Karim, J., Weisz, R., Bibi, Z., & urRehman, S. (2015). Validation of the eight-item center for epidemiologic studies depression scale (CES-D) among older adults. Current Psychology, 34, 681–692. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-014-9281-y
Kent, P. (2017). Fluid intelligence: A brief history. Applied Neuropsychology: Child, 6(3), 193–203. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622965.2017.1317480
Kim, G., Shin, S. H., Scicolone, M. A., & Parmelee, P. (2019). Purpose in life protects against cognitive decline among older adults. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry: Official Journal of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry, 27(6), 593–601. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2019.01.010
Kim, Y. H., Kim, H. J., Ahn, S. D., Seo, Y. J., & Kim, S. H. (2013). Effects of meditation on anxiety, depression, fatigue, and quality of life of women undergoing radiation therapy for breast cancer. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 21(4), 379–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctim.2013.06.005
Klimecki, O., Marchant, N. L., Lutz, A., Poisnel, G., Chetelat, G., & Collette, F. (2019). The impact of meditation on healthy ageing—the current state of knowledge and a roadmap to future directions. Current Opinion in Psychology, 28, 223–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.01.006
Koenig, A. M., Bhalla, R. K., & Butters, M. A. (2014). Cognitive functioning and late-life depression. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 20(5), 461–467. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617714000198
Kraal, A. Z., Sharifian, N., Zaheed, A. B., Sol, K., & Zahodne, L. B. (2019). Dimensions of religious involvement represent positive pathways in cognitive aging. Research on Aging, 41(9), 868–890. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027519862745
Laditka, J. N., Laditka, S. B., & Lowe, K. B. (2012). Promoting cognitive health: A web site review of health systems, public health departments, and senior centers. American Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Dementias, 27(8), 600–608. https://doi.org/10.1177/1533317512460564
Lavery, L. L., Dodge, H. H., Snitz, B., & Ganguli, M. (2009). Cognitive decline and mortality in a community-based cohort: The Monongahela Valley Independent Elders Survey. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 57(1), 94–100. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2008.02052.x
Lekhak, N., Bhatta, T. R., & Zauszniewski, J. A. (2020). Episodic memory in later life: benefits of prayer and meditation. Journal of Holistic Nursing: Official Journal of the American Holistic Nurses’ Association, 38(1), 30–40. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898010119898547
Lenze, E. J., Hickman, S., Hershey, T., Wendleton, L., Ly, K., Dixon, D., Doré, P., & Wetherell, J. L. (2014). Mindfulness-based stress reduction for older adults with worry symptoms and co-occurring cognitive dysfunction. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 29(10), 991–1000. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.4086
Lövdén, M., Fratiglioni, L., Glymour, M. M., Lindenberger, U., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2020). Education and cognitive functioning across the life span. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 21(1), 6–41. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100620920576
Malinowski, P., & Shalamanova, L. (2017). Meditation and cognitive ageing: the role of mindfulness meditation in building cognitive reserve. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 1(2), 96–106. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-017-0022-7
Mallya, S., & Fiocco, A. J. (2016). Effects of mindfulness training on cognition and well-being in healthy older adults. Mindfulness, 7(2), 453–465. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0468-6
Manjunath, N. K., & Telles, S. (2004). Spatial and verbal memory test scores following yoga and fine arts camps for school children. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 48(3), 353–356.
Moynihan, J. A., Chapman, B. P., Klorman, R., Krasner, M. S., Duberstein, P. R., Brown, K. W., & Talbot, N. L. (2013). Mindfulness-based stress reduction for older adults: Effects on executive function, frontal alpha asymmetry and immune function. Neuropsychobiology, 68(1), 34–43. https://doi.org/10.1159/000350949
Naveen, K. V., Nagarathna, R., Nagendra, H. R., & Telles, S. (1997). Yoga breathing through a particular nostril increases spatial memory scores without lateralized effects. Psychological Reports, 81(2), 555–561.
Njegovan, V., Hing, M. M., Mitchell, S. L., & Molnar, F. J. (2001). The hierarchy of functional loss associated with cognitive decline in older persons. The Journals of Gerontology Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 56(10), M638–M643. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/56.10.M638
Ofstedal, M. B., Fisher, G. G., & Herzog, A. R. (2005). Documentation of cognitive functioning measures in the Health and Retirement Study. University of Michigan. http://hrsonline.isr.umich.edu/sitedocs/userg/dr-006.pdf
Ospina, M. B., Bond, K., Karkhaneh, M., Tjosvold, L., Vandermeer, B., Liang, Y., Bialy, L., Hooton, N., Buscemi, N., Dryden, D. M., & Klassen, T. P. (2007). Meditation practices for health: state of the research (07-E010). Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.
Pandya, S. P. (2020). Older adults who meditate regularly perform better on neuropsychological functioning and visual working memory tests: a three-month waitlist control design study with a cohort of seniors in assisted living facilities. Experimental Aging Research, 46(3), 214–235. https://doi.org/10.1080/0361073X.2020.1743951
Pargament, K. I., Kennell, J., Hathaway, W., Grevengoed, N., Newman, J., & Jones, W. (1988). Religion and the problem-solving process: Three styles of coping. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 27, 90–104. https://doi.org/10.2307/1387404
Paul, E. J., Larsen, R. J., Nikolaidis, A., Ward, N., Hillman, C. H., Cohen, N. J., Kramer, A. F., & Barbey, A. K. (2016). Dissociable brain biomarkers of fluid intelligence. NeuroImage, 137, 201–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.05.037
Pischke, C. R., Frenda, S., Ornish, D., & Weidner, G. (2010). Lifestyle changes are related to reductions in depression in persons with elevated coronary risk factors. Psychology & Health, 25(9), 1077–1100. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870440903002986
Prakhinkit, S., Suppapitiporn, S., Tanaka, H., & Suksom, D. (2014). Effects of Buddhism walking meditation on depression, functional fitness, and endothelium-dependent vasodilation in depressed elderly. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 20(5), 411–416. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2013.0205
Rabe-Hesketh, S., Skrondal, A., & Pickles, A. (2002). Reliable estimation of generalized linear mixed models using adaptive quadrature. The Stata Journal, 2(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867X0200200101
Rabe-Hesketh, S., Skrondal, A., & Pickles, A. (2005). Maximum likelihood estimation of limited and discrete dependent variable models with nested random effects. Journal of Econometrics, 128(2), 301–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2004.08.017
Robert-McComb, J. J., Cisneros, A., Tacón, A., Panike, R., Norman, R., Qian, X.-P., & McGlone, J. (2015). The effects of mindfulness-based movement on parameters of stress. International Journal of Yoga Therapy, 25(1), 79–88. https://doi.org/10.17761/1531-2054-25.1.79
Roehr, S., Luck, T., Pabst, A., Bickel, H., König, H.-H., Lühmann, D., Fuchs, A., Wolfsgruber, S., Wiese, B., Weyerer, S., Mösch, E., Brettschneider, C., Mallon, T., Pentzek, M., Wagner, M., Mamone, S., Werle, J., Scherer, M., Maier, W., … Riedel-Heller, S. G. (2017). Subjective cognitive decline is longitudinally associated with lower health-related quality of life. International Psychogeriatrics, 29(12), 1939–1950https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610217001399
Saenz, J. L., Garcia, M. A., & Downer, B. (2020). Late life depressive symptoms and cognitive function among older Mexican adults: The past and the present. Aging & Mental Health, 24(3), 413–422. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2018.1544214
Schjoedt, U., Stødkilde-Jørgensen, H., Geertz, A. W., & Roepstorff, A. (2009). Highly religious participants recruit areas of social cognition in personal prayer. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 4(2), 199–207. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsn050
Shapero, B. G., Greenberg, J., Mischoulon, D., Pedrelli, P., Meade, K., & Lazar, S. W. (2018). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy improves cognitive functioning and flexibility among individuals with elevated depressive symptoms. Mindfulness, 9(5), 1457–1469. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0889-0
Sperduti, M., Makowski, D., Blondé, P., & Piolino, P. (2017). Meditation and successful aging: Can meditative practices counteract age-related cognitive decline? Geriatrie Et Psychologie Neuropsychiatrie Du Vieillissement, 15(2), 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1684/pnv.2017.0672
Sullivan, M. D., Katon, W. J., Lovato, L. C., Miller, M. E., Murray, A. M., Horowitz, K. R., Bryan, R. N., Gerstein, H. C., Marcovina, S., Akpunonu, B. E., Johnson, J., Yale, J. F., Williamson, J., & Launer, L. J. (2013). Association of depression with accelerated cognitive decline among patients with type 2 diabetes in the ACCORD-MIND trial. JAMA Psychiatry, 70(10), 1041–1047. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.1965
Teut, M., Roesner, E. J., Ortiz, M., Reese, F., Binting, S., Roll, S., Fischer, H. F., Michalsen, A., Willich, S. N., & Brinkhaus, B. (2013). Mindful walking in psychologically distressed individuals: A randomized controlled trial. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2013, 489856. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/489856
van Elk, M., & Aleman, A. (2017). Brain mechanisms in religion and spirituality: An integrative predictive processing framework. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 73, 359–378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.12.031
Wetherell, J. L., Hershey, T., Hickman, S., Tate, S. R., Dixon, D., Bower, E. S., & Lenze, E. J. (2017). Mindfulness-based stress reduction for older adults with stress disorders and neurocognitive difficulties: a randomized controlled trial. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 78(7), e734–e743. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.16m10947
Yu, J., Rawtaer, I., Feng, L., Fam, J., Kumar, A. P., Kee-MunCheah, I., Honer, W. G., Su, W., Lee, Y. K., Tan, E. C., Kua, E. H., & Mahendran, R. (2021). Mindfulness intervention for mild cognitive impairment led to attention-related improvements and neuroplastic changes: Results from a 9-month randomized control trial. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 135, 203–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.01.032
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) for use of their data products.
Funding
This study was funded by the National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities Grant (R01MD013886-02S1).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Snehal Lopes: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Writing- Original Draft, Reviewing and Editing. Lu Shi: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing- Reviewing and Editing, Supervision, Funding Acquisition. Xi Pan: Review and Editing. Yian Gu: Review and Editing. Christine Dengler-Crish: Review and Editing. Yan Li: Review and Editing. Biplav Tiwari: Review and Editing. Donglan Zhang: Conceptualization, Methodology, Review and Editing, Funding Acquisition.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Review
Since the data used for this study included no protected health information and was publicly accessible, it was exempt from IRB review.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Lopes, S., Shi, L., Pan, X. et al. Meditation and Cognitive Outcomes: A Longitudinal Analysis Using Data From the Health and Retirement Study 2000–2016. Mindfulness 14, 1705–1717 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-023-02165-w
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-023-02165-w