Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA): Concept and Clinical Review

  • Chapter
Cognitive Screening Instruments

Abstract

The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) is a cognitive screening instrument developed to detect mild cognitive impairment (MCI). It is a simple 10 min paper and pencil test that assesses multiple cognitive domains including memory, language, executive functions, visuospatial skills, calculation, abstraction, attention, concentration, and orientation. Its validity has been established to detect mild cognitive impairment in patients with Alzheimer’s disease and other pathologies in cognitively impaired subjects who scored in the normal range on the MMSE. MoCA’s sensitivity and specificity to detect subjects with MCI due to Alzheimer’s disease and distinguish them from healthy controls are excellent. MoCA is also sensitive to detect cognitive impairment in cerebrovascular disease and Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, brain tumors, systemic lupus erythematosus, substance use disorders, idiopathic rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder, obstructive sleep apnea, risk of falling, rehabilitation outcome, epilepsy, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and human immunodeficiency virus infection. There are several features in MoCA’s design that likely explain its superior sensitivity for detecting MCI. MoCA’s memory testing involves more words, fewer learning trials, and a longer delay before recall than the MMSE. Executive functions, higher-level language abilities, and complex visuospatial processing can also be mildly impaired in MCI participants of various etiologies and are assessed by the MoCA with more numerous and demanding tasks than the MMSE. MoCA was developed in a memory clinic setting and normed in a highly educated population. A new version of the MoCA called MoCA-Basic (MoCA-B) was developed to fulfill the limitation of the MoCA among the low educated and illiterate population. MoCA Memory Index Score is a newly devised score that can help clinicians better predict which patients with MCI are most likely to convert to dementia. The MoCA is freely accessible for clinical and educational purposes (www.mocatest.org), and is available in 56 languages and dialects.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 119.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 159.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 159.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Nasreddine ZS, Phillips NA, Bédirian V, Charbonneau S, Whitehead V, Collin I, et al. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: a brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2005;53:695–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Lam B, Middleton LE, Masellis M, Stuss DT, Harry RD, Kiss A, et al. Criterion and convergent validity of the Montreal cognitive assessment with screening and standardized neuropsychological testing. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2013;61:2181–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Del Brutto OH, Mera RM, Zambrano M, Soriano F, Lama J. Global cortical atrophy (GCA) associates with worse performance in the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA). A population-based study in community-dwelling elders living in rural Ecuador. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2015;60:206–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Kortte KB, Horner MD, Windham WK. The trail making test, part B: cognitive flexibility or ability to maintain set? Appl Neuropsychol. 2002;9:106–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Sánchez-Cubillo I, Periáñez JA, Adrover-Roig D, Rodríguez-Sánchez JM, Ríos-Lago M, Tirapu J, et al. Construct validity of the Trail Making Test: role of task-switching, working memory, inhibition/interference control, and visuomotor abilities. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2009;15:438–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Crowe SF. The differential contribution of mental tracking, cognitive flexibility, visual search, and motor speed to performance on parts A and B of the Trail Making Test. J Clin Psychol. 1998;54:585–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. O’Rourke JJF, Beglinger LJ, Smith MM, Mills J, Moser DJ, Rowe KC, et al. The Trail Making Test in prodromal Huntington disease: contributions of disease progression to test performance. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2011;33:567–79.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Jacobson SC, Blanchard M, Connolly CC, Cannon M, Garavan H. An fMRI investigation of a novel analogue to the Trail-Making Test. Brain Cogn. 2011;77:60–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Zakzanis KK, Mraz R, Graham SJ. An fMRI study of the Trail Making Test. Neuropsychologia. 2005;43:1878–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Moll J, de Oliveira-Souza R, Moll FT, Bramati IE, Andreiuolo PA. The cerebral correlates of set-shifting: an fMRI study of the trail making test. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2002;60:900–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Stuss DT, Bisschop SM, Alexander MP, Levine B, Katz D, Izukawa D. The Trail Making Test: a study in focal lesion patients. Psychol Assess. 2001;13:230–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Gouveia PAR, Brucki SMD, Malheiros SMF, Bueno OFA. Disorders in planning and strategy application in frontal lobe lesion patients. Brain Cogn. 2007;63:240–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Tamez E, Myerson J, Morris L, White DA, Baum C, Connor LT. Assessing executive abilities following acute stroke with the trail making test and digit span. Behav Neurol. 2011;24:177–85.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Sinha P, Poggio T. Role of learning in three-dimensional form perception. Nature. 1996;384:460–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Wallach H, O’Connell DN, Neisser U. The memory effect of visual perception of three-dimensional form. J Exp Psychol. 1953;45:360–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Boxer AL, Kramer JH, Du A-T, Schuff N, Weiner MW, Miller BL, et al. Focal right inferotemporal atrophy in AD with disproportionate visual constructive impairment. Neurology. 2003;61:1485–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Tippett WJ, Black SE. Regional cerebral blood flow correlates of visuospatial tasks in Alzheimer’s disease. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2008;14:1034–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Possin KL, Laluz VR, Alcantar OZ, Miller BL, Kramer JH. Distinct neuroanatomical substrates and cognitive mechanisms of figure copy performance in Alzheimer’s disease and behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia. Neuropsychologia. 2011;49:43–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Gaestel Y, Amieva H, Letenneur L, Dartigues J-F, Fabrigoule C. Cube drawing performances in normal ageing and Alzheimer’s disease: data from the PAQUID elderly population-based cohort. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2006;21:22–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Shulman KI, Shedletsky R, Silver IL. The challenge of time: clock-drawing and cognitive function in the elderly. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 1986;1:135–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Pinto E, Peters R. Literature review of the Clock Drawing Test as a tool for cognitive screening. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2009;27:201–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Ino T, Asada T, Ito J, Kimura T, Fukuyama H. Parieto-frontal networks for clock drawing revealed with fMRI. Neurosci Res. 2003;45:71–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Kim H, Chey J. Effects of education, literacy, and dementia on the Clock Drawing Test performance. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2010;16:1138–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Rouleau I, Salmon DP, Butters N, Kennedy C, McGuire K. Quantitative and qualitative analyses of clock drawings in Alzheimer’s and Huntington’s disease. Brain Cogn. 1992;18:70–87.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Kim Y-S, Lee K-M, Choi BH, Sohn E-H, Lee AY. Relation between the clock drawing test (CDT) and structural changes of brain in dementia. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2009;48:218–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Cahn-Weiner DA, Sullivan EV, Shear PK, Fama R, Lim KO, Yesavage JA, et al. Brain structural and cognitive correlates of clock drawing performance in Alzheimer’s disease. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 1999;5:502–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Thomann PA, Toro P, Dos Santos V, Essig M, Schröder J. Clock drawing performance and brain morphology in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease. Brain Cogn. 2008;67:88–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Parks RW, Thiyagesh SN, Farrow TFD, Ingram L, Wilkinson K, Hunter MD, et al. Performance on the clock drawing task correlates with FMRI response to a visuospatial task in Alzheimer’s disease. Int J Neurosci. 2010;120:335–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Lee DY, Seo EH, Choo IH, Kim SG, Lee JS, Lee DS, et al. Neural correlates of the Clock Drawing Test performance in Alzheimer’s disease: a FDG-PET study. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2008;26:306–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Cosentino S, Jefferson A, Chute DL, Kaplan E, Libon DJ. Clock drawing errors in dementia: neuropsychological and neuroanatomical considerations. Cogn Behav Neurol. 2004;17:74–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Liss B, Roeper J. Individual dopamine midbrain neurons: functional diversity and flexibility in health and disease. Brain Res Rev. 2008;58:314–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Price CC, Cunningham H, Coronado N, Freedland A, Cosentino S, Penney DL, et al. Clock drawing in the Montreal Cognitive Assessment: recommendations for dementia assessment. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2011;31:179–87.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Nitrini R, Caramelli P, Herrera Júnior E, Porto CS, Charchat-Fichman H, Carthery MT, et al. Performance of illiterate and literate nondemented elderly subjects in two tests of long-term memory. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2004;10:634–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Brodaty H, Moore CM. The Clock Drawing Test for dementia of the Alzheimer’s type: a comparison of three scoring methods in a memory disorders clinic. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 1997;12:619–27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Hodges JR, Salmon DP, Butters N. The nature of the naming deficit in Alzheimer’s and Huntington’s disease. Brain. 1991;114:1547–58.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Chertkow H, Bub D. Semantic memory loss in dementia of Alzheimer’s type. What do various measures measure? Brain. 1990;113:397–417.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Bayles KA, Tomoeda CK. Confrontation naming impairment in dementia. Brain Lang. 1983;19:98–114.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Frank EM, McDade HL, Scott WK. Naming in dementia secondary to Parkinson’s, Huntington’s, and Alzheimer’s diseases. J Commun Disord. 1996;29:183–97.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Smith CD, Andersen AH, Kryscio RJ, Schmitt FA, Kindy MS, Blonder LX, et al. Differences in functional magnetic resonance imaging activation by category in a visual confrontation naming task. J Neuroimaging. 2001;11:165–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Chouinard PA, Goodale MA. Category-specific neural processing for naming pictures of animals and naming pictures of tools: an ALE meta-analysis. Neuropsychologia. 2010;48:409–18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Bai H-M, Jiang T, Wang W-M, Li T-D, Liu Y, Lu Y-C. Functional MRI mapping of category-specific sites associated with naming of famous faces, animals and man-made objects. Neurosci Bull. 2011;27:307–18.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Okada T, Tanaka S, Nakai T, Nishizawa S, Inui T, Sadato N, et al. Naming of animals and tools: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of categorical differences in the human brain areas commonly used for naming visually presented objects. Neurosci Lett. 2000;296:33–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Fung TD, Chertkow H, Murtha S, Whatmough C, Péloquin L, Whitehead V, et al. The spectrum of category effects in object and action knowledge in dementia of the Alzheimer’s type. Neuropsychology. 2001;15:371–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Mainy N, Jung J, Baciu M, Kahane P, Schoendorff B, Minotti L, et al. Cortical dynamics of word recognition. Hum Brain Mapp. 2008;29:1215–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Kaneko H, Yoshikawa T, Nomura K, Ito H, Yamauchi H, Ogura M, et al. Hemodynamic changes in the prefrontal cortex during digit span task: a near-infrared spectroscopy study. Neuropsychobiology. 2011;63:59–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Hoshi Y, Oda I, Wada Y, Ito Y, Yutaka Y, Oda M, et al. Visuospatial imagery is a fruitful strategy for the digit span backward task: a study with near-infrared optical tomography. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res. 2000;9:339–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Sun X, Zhang X, Chen X, Zhang P, Bao M, Zhang D, et al. Age-dependent brain activation during forward and backward digit recall revealed by fMRI. Neuroimage. 2005;26:36–47.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Gerton BK, Brown TT, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Kohn P, Holt JL, Olsen RK, et al. Shared and distinct neurophysiological components of the digits forward and backward tasks as revealed by functional neuroimaging. Neuropsychologia. 2004;42:1781–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Belleville S, Peretz I, Malenfant D. Examination of the working memory components in normal aging and in dementia of the Alzheimer type. Neuropsychologia. 1996;34:195–207.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Morris RG, Baddeley AD. Primary and working memory functioning in Alzheimer-type dementia. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 1988;10:279–96.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Muangpaisan W, Intalapaporn S, Assantachai P. Digit span and verbal fluency tests in patients with mild cognitive impairment and normal subjects in Thai-community. J Med Assoc Thai. 2010;93:224–30.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Petrova M, Raycheva M, Zhelev Y, Traykov L. Executive functions deficit in Parkinson’s disease with amnestic mild cognitive impairment. Am J Alzheimers Dis Other Demen. 2010;25:455–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Leung JLM, Lee GTH, Lam YH, Chan RCC, Wu JYM. The use of the Digit Span Test in screening for cognitive impairment in acute medical inpatients. Int Psychogeriatr. 2011;23:1569–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Kurt P, Yener G, Oguz M. Impaired digit span can predict further cognitive decline in older people with subjective memory complaint: a preliminary result. Aging Ment Health. 2011;15:364–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Cicerone KD. Clinical sensitivity of four measures of attention to mild traumatic brain injury. Clin Neuropsychol. 1997;11:266–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Cicerone KD, Azulay J. Diagnostic utility of attention measures in postconcussion syndrome. Clin Neuropsychol. 2002;16:280–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Rémy F, Mirrashed F, Campbell B, Richter W. Mental calculation impairment in Alzheimer’s disease: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Neurosci Lett. 2004;358:25–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Dehaene S, Spelke E, Pinel P, Stanescu R, Tsivkin S. Sources of mathematical thinking: behavioral and brain-imaging evidence. Science. 1999;284:970–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Menon V, Rivera SM, White CD, Glover GH, Reiss AL. Dissociating prefrontal and parietal cortex activation during arithmetic processing. Neuroimage. 2000;12:357–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Roland PE, Friberg L. Localization of cortical areas activated by thinking. J Neurophysiol. 1985;53:1219–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Chase TN, Fedio P, Foster NL, Brooks R, Di Chiro G, Mansi L. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale performance: cortical localization by fluorodeoxyglucose F 18-positron emission tomography. Arch Neurol. 1984;41:1244–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Zago L, Pesenti M, Mellet E, Crivello F, Mazoyer B, Tzourio-Mazoyer N. Neural correlates of simple and complex mental calculation. Neuroimage. 2001;13:314–27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Rueckert L, Lange N, PArtiot A, Appollonio I, Litvan I, Bihan D, et al. Visualizing cortical activation during mental calculation with functional MRI. Neuroimage. 1996;3:97–103.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Hirono N, Mori E, Ishii K, Imamura T, Shimomura T, Tanimukai S, et al. Regional metabolism: associations with dyscalculia in Alzheimer’s disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1998;65:913–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  65. Small JA, Kemper S, Lyons K. Sentence repetition and processing resources in Alzheimer’s disease. Brain Lang. 2000;75:232–58.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Kopelman MD. Recall of anomalous sentences in dementia and amnesia. Brain Lang. 1986;29:154–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Meyers JE, Volkert K, Diep A. Sentence repetition test: updated norms and clinical utility. Appli Neuropsychol. 2000;7:154–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Baldo JV, Shimamura AP, Delis DC, Kramer J, Kaplan E. Verbal and design fluency in patients with frontal lobe lesions. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2001;7:586–96.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Baldo JV, Shimamura AP. Letter and category fluency in patients with frontal lobe lesions. Neuropsychology. 1998;12:259–67.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Troyer AK, Moscovitch M, Winocur G, Alexander MP, Stuss D. Clustering and switching on verbal fluency: the effects of focal frontal- and temporal-lobe lesions. Neuropsychologia. 1998;36:499–504.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Perret E. The left frontal lobe of man and the suppression of habitual responses in verbal categorical behaviour. Neuropsychologia. 1974;12:323–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Pendleton MG, Heaton RK, Lehman RA, Hulihan D. Diagnostic utility of the Thurstone Word Fluency Test in neuropsychological evaluations. J Clin Neuropsychol. 1982;4:307–17.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Frith CD, Friston K, Liddle PF, Frackowiak RS. Willed action and the prefrontal cortex in man: a study with PET. Proc Biol Sci. 1991;244:241–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Parks RW, Loewenstein DA, Dodrill KL, Barker WW, Yoshii F, Chang JY, et al. Cerebral metabolic effects of a verbal fluency test: a PET scan study. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 1988;10:565–75.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Phelps EA, Hyder F, Blamire AM, Shulman RG. FMRI of the prefrontal cortex during overt verbal fluency. Neuroreport. 1997;8:561–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Alvarez JA, Emory E. Executive function and the frontal lobes: a meta-analytic review. Neuropsychol Rev. 2006;16:17–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Ostrosky-Solís F, Ardila A, Rosselli M, Lopez-Arango G, Uriel-Mendoza V. Neuropsychological test performance in illiterate subjects. Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 1998;13:645–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Ostrosky-Solís F, Ardila A, Rosselli M. NEUROPSI: a brief neuropsychological test battery in Spanish with norms by age and educational level. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 1999;5:413–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Rosselli M, Ardila A, Rosas P. Neuropsychological assessment in illiterates. II. Language and praxic abilities. Brain Cogn. 1990;12:281–96.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Wong A, Xiong YY, Kwan PWL, Chan AYY, Lam WWM, Wang K, et al. The validity, reliability and clinical utility of the Hong Kong Montreal Cognitive Assessment (HK-MoCA) in patients with cerebral small vessel disease. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2009;28:81–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Lee J-Y, Dong Woo L, Cho S-J, NA DL, Hong Jin J, Kim S-K, et al. Brief screening for mild cognitive impairment in elderly outpatient clinic: validation of the Korean version of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2008;21:104–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Henry JD, Crawford JR. Verbal fluency deficits in Parkinson’s disease: a meta-analysis. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2004;10:608–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Larsson MU, Almkvist O, Luszcz MA, Wahlin T-BR. Phonemic fluency deficits in asymptomatic gene carriers for Huntington’s disease. Neuropsychology. 2008;22:596–605.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Ho AK, Sahakian BJ, Robbins TW, Barker RA, Rosser AE, Hodges JR. Verbal fluency in Huntington’s disease: a longitudinal analysis of phonemic and semantic clustering and switching. Neuropsychologia. 2002;40:1277–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Murphy KJ, Rich JB, Troyer AK. Verbal fluency patterns in amnestic mild cognitive impairment are characteristic of Alzheimer’s type dementia. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2006;12:570–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Henry J, Crawford JR. A meta-analytic review of verbal fluency deficits in depression. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2005;27:78–101.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Woo BKP, Harwood DG, Melrose RJ, Mandelkern MA, Campa OM, Walston A, et al. Executive deficits and regional brain metabolism in Alzheimer’s disease. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2010;25:1150–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Slachevsky A, Villalpando JM, Sarazin M, Hahn-Barma V, Pillon B, Dubois B. Frontal assessment battery and differential diagnosis of frontotemporal dementia and Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol. 2004;61:1104–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Fabrigoule C, Rouch I, Taberly A, Letenneur L, Commenges D, Mazaux JM, et al. Cognitive process in preclinical phase of dementia. Brain. 1998;121:135–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Fouquet M, Desgranges B, La Joie R, Rivière D, Mangin J-F, Landeau B, et al. Role of hippocampal CA1 atrophy in memory encoding deficits in amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment. Neuroimage. 2012;59:3309–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Chetelat G, Desgranges B, de la Sayette V, Viader F, Berkouk K, Landeau B, et al. Dissociating atrophy and hypometabolism impact on episodic memory in mild cognitive impairment. Brain. 2003;126:1955–67.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Cummings JL, Benson DF. Subcortical dementia. Review of an emerging concept. Arch Neurol. 1984;41:874–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Lafosse JM, Reed BR, Mungas D, Sterling SB, Wahbeh H, Jagust WJ. Fluency and memory differences between ischemic vascular dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. Neuropsychology. 1997;11:514–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Traykov L, Baudic S, Raoux N, Latour F, Rieu D, Smagghe A, et al. Patterns of memory impairment and perseverative behavior discriminate early Alzheimer’s disease from subcortical vascular dementia. J Neurol Sci. 2005;229–230:75–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Ibarretxe-Bilbao N, Zarei M, Junque C, Marti MJ, Segura B, Vendrell P, et al. Dysfunctions of cerebral networks precede recognition memory deficits in early Parkinson’s disease. Neuroimage. 2011;57:589–97.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Fine EM, Delis DC, Wetter SR, Jacobson MW, Hamilton JM, Peavy G, et al. Identifying the “source” of recognition memory deficits in patients with Huntington’s disease or Alzheimer’s disease: evidence from the CVLT-II. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2008;30:463–70.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  97. Massman PJ, Delis DC, Butters N, Levin BE, Salmon DP. Are all subcortical dementias alike? Verbal learning and memory in Parkinson’s and Huntington’s disease patients. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 1990;12:729–44.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Whittington CJ, Podd J, Kan MM. Recognition memory impairment in Parkinson’s disease: power and meta-analyses. Neuropsychology. 2000;14:233–46.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Higginson CI, Wheelock VL, Carroll KE, Sigvardt KA. Recognition memory in Parkinson’s disease with and without dementia: evidence inconsistent with the retrieval deficit hypothesis. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2005;27:516–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Fossati P, Deweer B, Raoux N, Allilaire JF. Deficits in memory retrieval: an argument in favor of frontal subcortical dysfunction in depression. Encéphale. 1995;21:295–305.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Mesholam-Gately RI, Giuliano AJ, Zillmer EA, Barakat LP, Kumar A, Gur RC, et al. Verbal learning and memory in older adults with minor and major depression. Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 2012;27:196–207.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Pasquier F, Grymonprez L, Lebert F, Van der Linden M. Memory impairment differs in frontotemporal dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. Neurocase. 2001;7:161–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Wicklund AH, Johnson N, Rademaker A, Weitner BB, Weintraub S. Word list versus story memory in Alzheimer disease and frontotemporal dementia. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 2006;20:86–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Kazui H. Cognitive impairment in patients with idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus. Brain Nerve. 2008;60:225–31.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Peavy G, Jacobs D, Salmon DP, Butters N, Delis DC, Taylor M, et al. Verbal memory performance of patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection: evidence of subcortical dysfunction. The HNRC Group. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 1994;16:508–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Becker JT, Caldararo R, Lopez OL, Dew MA, Dorst SK, Banks G. Qualitative features of the memory deficit associated with HIV infection and AIDS: cross-validation of a discriminant function classification scheme. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 1995;17:134–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Leube DT, Weis S, Freymann K, Erb M, Jessen F, Heun R, et al. Neural correlates of verbal episodic memory in patients with MCI and Alzheimer’s disease – a VBM study. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2008;23:1114–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Kramer JH, Levin BE, Brandt J, Delis DC. Differentiation of Alzheimer’s, Huntington’ s, and Parkinson’ s Disease patients on the basis of verbal learning characteristics. Neuropsychology. 1989;3:111–20.

    Google Scholar 

  109. Caulo M, Van Hecke J, Toma L, Ferretti A, Tartaro A, Colosimo C, et al. Functional MRI study of diencephalic amnesia in Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome. Brain. 2005;128:1584–94.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Scoville WB, Milner B. Loss of recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesions. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1957;20:11–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  111. Milner B. Psychological defects produced by temporal lobe excision. Res Publ Assoc Res Nerv Ment Dis. 1958;36:244–57.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Julayanont P, Brousseau M, Chertkow H, Phillips N, Nasreddine ZS. Montreal Cognitive Assessment Memory Index Score (MoCA-MIS) as a predictor of conversion from mild cognitive impairment to Alzheimer’s disease. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2014;62:679–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Aggarwal NT, Wilson RS, Beck TL, Bienias JL, Bennett DA. Mild cognitive impairment in different functional domains and incident Alzheimer’s disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005;76:1479–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  114. Traykov L, Rigaud A-S, Cesaro P, Boller F. Neuropsychological impairment in the early Alzheimer’s disease. Encéphale. 2007;33:310–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Grober E, Hall CB, Lipton RB, Zonderman AB, Resnick SM, Kawas C. Memory impairment, executive dysfunction, and intellectual decline in preclinical Alzheimer’s disease. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2008;14:266–78.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  116. Clément F, Belleville S, Mellah S. Functional neuroanatomy of the encoding and retrieval processes of verbal episodic memory in MCI. Cortex. 2010;46:1005–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Dannhauser TM, Shergill SS, Stevens T, Lee L, Seal M, Walker RWH, et al. An fMRI study of verbal episodic memory encoding in amnestic mild cognitive impairment. Cortex. 2008;44:869–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Razani J, Wong JT, Dafaeeboini N, Edwards-Lee T, Lu P, Alessi C, et al. Predicting everyday functional abilities of dementia patients with the Mini-Mental State Examination. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2009;22:62–70.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  119. Razani J, Kakos B, Orieta-Barbalace C, Wong JT, Casas R, Lu P, et al. Predicting caregiver burden from daily functional abilities of patients with mild dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2007;55:1415–20.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  120. O’Keeffe E, Mukhtar O, O’Keeffe ST. Orientation to time as a guide to the presence and severity of cognitive impairment in older hospital patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2011;82:500–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Guerrero-Berroa E, Luo X, Schmeidler J, Rapp MA, Dahlman K, Grossman HT, et al. The MMSE orientation for time domain is a strong predictor of subsequent cognitive decline in the elderly. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2009;24:1429–37.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  122. Ryan JJ, Glass LA, Bartels JM, Bergner CM, Paolo AM. Predicting neuropsychological test performance on the basis of temporal orientation. Neuropsychol Dev Cogn B Aging Neuropsychol Cogn. 2009;16:330–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Chertkow H, Nasreddine Z, Joanette Y, Drolet V, Kirk J, Massoud F, et al. Mild cognitive impairment and cognitive impairment, no dementia: part A, concept and diagnosis. Alzheimers Dement. 2007;3:266–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Hachinski V, Iadecola C, Petersen RC, Breteler MM, Nyenhuis DL, Black SE, et al. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke-Canadian Stroke Network vascular cognitive impairment harmonization standards. Stroke. 2006;37:2220–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Howe E. Initial screening of patients for Alzheimer’s disease and minimal cognitive impairment. Psychiatry (Edgmont). 2007;4:24–7.

    Google Scholar 

  126. Ismail Z, Rajji TK, Shulman KI. Brief cognitive screening instruments: an update. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2010;25:111–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Mitchell AJ, Malladi S. Screening and case finding tools for the detection of dementia. Part I: evidence-based meta-analysis of multidomain tests. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2010;18:759–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Luis CA, Keegan AP, Mullan M. Cross validation of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment in community dwelling older adults residing in the Southeastern US. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2009;24:197–201.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. You J, Chen R, Zhang F, Zhou Z, Cai Y, Li G. The Chinese (Cantonese) Montreal Cognitive Assessment in patients with subcortical ischemic vascular dementia. Dement Geriatr Cogn Dis Extra. 2011;1:276–82.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  130. Bernstein IH, Lacritz L, Barlow CE, Weiner MF, Defina LF. Psychometric evaluation of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) in three diverse samples. Clin Neuropsychol. 2011;25:119–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Yeung PY, Wong LL, Chan CC, Leung JLM, Yung CY. A validation study of the Hong Kong version of Montreal Cognitive Assessment (HK-MoCA) in Chinese older adults in Hong Kong. Hong Kong Med J. 2014;20:504–10.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Chu L-W, Ng KHY, Law ACK, Lee AM, Kwan F. Validity of the Cantonese Chinese Montreal Cognitive Assessment in Southern Chinese. Geriatr Gerontol Int. 2015;15:96–103.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Rossetti HC, Lacritz LH, Cullum CM, Weiner MF. Normative data for the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) in a population-based sample. Neurology. 2011;77:1272–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Zheng L, Teng EL, Varma R, Mack WJ, Mungas D, Lu PH, et al. Chinese-language montreal cognitive assessment for cantonese or mandarin speakers: age, education, and gender effects. Int J Alzheimers Dis. 2012;2012:204623.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  135. Hu J, Zhou W, Hu S, Huang M, Wei N, Qi H, et al. Cross-cultural difference and validation of the Chinese version of Montreal Cognitive Assessment in older adults residing in Eastern China: preliminary findings. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2013;56:38–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Narazaki K, Nofuji Y, Honda T, Matsuo E, Yonemoto K, Kumagai S. Normative data for the montreal cognitive assessment in a Japanese community-dwelling older population. Neuroepidemiology. 2013;40:23–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Nasreddine ZS, Phillips NA, Chertkow H. Comment: Normative data for the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) in a population-based sample. Neurology. 2012;78:765–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Gluhm S, Goldstein J, Loc K, Colt A, Van Liew C, Corey-Bloom J. Cognitive performance on the mini-mental state examination and the montreal cognitive assessment across the healthy adult lifespan. Cogn Behav Neurol. 2013;26:1–5.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  139. Julayanont P, Hemrungrojn S, Tangwongchai S. The effect of education and literacy on performance on the Montreal Cognitive Assessment among cognitively normal elderly. Alzheimers Dement. 2013;9:P793.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  140. Chertkow H, Nasreddine Z, Johns E, Phillips N, McHenry C. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MOCA): validation of alternate forms and new recommendations for education corrections. Alzheimers Dement. 2011;7(Suppl1):S156. Abstract P1-143.

    Google Scholar 

  141. Zhao S, Guo C, Wang M, Chen W, Wu Y, Tang W, et al. A clinical memory battery for screening for amnestic mild cognitive impairment in an elderly chinese population. J Clin Neurosci. 2011;18:774–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Ng Hoi Yee K. The validity of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (Cantonese version) as a screening tool for mild cognitive impairment in Hong Kong Chinese. The University of Hong Kong; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  143. Fujiwara Y, Suzuki H, Yasunaga M, Sugiyama M, Ijuin M, Sakuma N, et al. Brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment in older Japanese: validation of the Japanese version of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment. Geriatr Gerontol Int. 2010;10:225–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Smith T, Gildeh N, Holmes C. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment: validity and utility in a memory clinic setting. Can J Psychiatry. 2007;52:329–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Rahman TTA, El Gaafary MM. Montreal Cognitive Assessment Arabic version: reliability and validity prevalence of mild cognitive impairment among elderly attending geriatric clubs in Cairo. Geriatr Gerontol Int. 2009;9:54–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Tangwongchai S, Phanasathit M, Charernboon T, Akkayagorn L, Hemrungrojn H, Phanthumchinda K, et al. The validity of Thai version of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA -T). In: International Psychogeriatric Association Conference, Montreal, Sept 2009, Abstract.

    Google Scholar 

  147. Duro D, Simões MR, Ponciano E, Santana I. Validation studies of the Portuguese experimental version of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA): confirmatory factor analysis. J Neurol. 2010;257:728–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Selekler K, Cangoz B, Uluç S. Power of discrimination of Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) Scale in Turkish Patients with Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer’s Disease. Turk J Geriatr. 2010;13:166–71.

    Google Scholar 

  149. Larner AJ. Screening utility of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA): in place of – or as well as – the MMSE? Int Psychogeriatr. 2012;24:391–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Karunaratne S, Hanwella R, De Silva V. Validation of the Sinhala version of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment in screening for dementia. Ceylon Med J. 2011;56:147–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Damian AM, Jacobson SA, Hentz JG, Belden CM, Shill HA, Sabbagh MN, et al. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment and the mini-mental state examination as screening instruments for cognitive impairment: item analyses and threshold scores. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2011;31:126–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Freitas S, Simões MR. Construct validity of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA). J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2012;18:1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  153. Chang Y-T, Chang C-C, Lin H-S, Huang C-W, Chang W-N, Lui C-C, et al. Montreal cognitive assessment in assessing clinical severity and white matter hyperintensity in Alzheimer’s disease with normal control comparison. Acta Neurol Taiwan. 2012;21:64–73.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Dong Y, Lee WY, Basri NA, Collinson SL, Merchant RA, Venketasubramanian N, et al. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment is superior to the Mini-Mental State Examination in detecting patients at higher risk of dementia. Int Psychogeriatr. 2012;24:1749–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Tsai C-F, Lee W-J, Wang S-J, Shia B-C, Nasreddine Z, Fuh J-L. Psychometrics of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) and its subscales: validation of the Taiwanese version of the MoCA and an item response theory analysis. Int Psychogeriatr. 2012;24:651–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Yu J, Li J, Huang X. The Beijing version of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment as a brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment: a community-based study. BMC Psychiatry. 2012;12:156.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  157. Magierska J, Magierski R, Fendler W, Kłoszewska I, Sobów TM. Clinical application of the Polish adaptation of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) test in screening for cognitive impairment. Neurol Neurochir Pol. 2012;46:130–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Memória CM, Yassuda MS, Nakano EY, Forlenza OV. Brief screening for mild cognitive impairment: validation of the Brazilian version of the Montreal cognitive assessment. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2013;28:34–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Ng A, Chew I, Narasimhalu K, Kandiah N. Effectiveness of Montreal Cognitive Assessment for the diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment and mild Alzheimer’s disease in Singapore. Singapore Med J. 2013;54:616–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Zhou S, Zhu J, Zhang N, Wang B, Li T, Lv X, et al. The influence of education on Chinese version of Montreal cognitive assessment in detecting amnesic mild cognitive impairment among older people in a Beijing rural community. ScientificWorldJournal. 2014;2014:689456.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  161. Goldstein FC, Ashley AV, Miller E, Alexeeva O, Zanders L, King V. Validity of the montreal cognitive assessment as a screen for mild cognitive impairment and dementia in African Americans. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2014;27:199–203.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Trzepacz PT, Hochstetler H, Wang S, Walker B, Saykin AJ. Relationship between the Montreal Cognitive Assessment and Mini-mental State Examination for assessment of mild cognitive impairment in older adults. BMC Geriatr. 2015;15:107.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  163. Gil L, Ruiz de Sánchez C, Gil F, Romero SJ, Pretelt Burgos F. Validation of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) in Spanish as a screening tool for mild cognitive impairment and mild dementia in patients over 65 years old in Bogotá, Colombia. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2015;30:655–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Lifshitz M, Dwolatzky T, Press Y. Validation of the Hebrew version of the MoCA test as a screening instrument for the early detection of mild cognitive impairment in elderly individuals. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2012;25:155–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Martinić-Popović I, Šerić V, Demarin V. Early detection of mild cognitive impairment in patients with cerebrovascular disease. Acta Clin Croat. 2006;45:77–85.

    Google Scholar 

  166. Martinić-Popović I, Serić V, Demarin V. Mild cognitive impairment in symptomatic and asymptomatic cerebrovascular disease. J Neurol Sci. 2007;257:185–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  167. Weiner MF, Hynan LS, Rossetti H, Warren MW, Cullum CM. The relationship of montreal cognitive assessment scores to framingham coronary and stroke risk scores. Open J Psychiatr. 2011;1:49–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  168. Martinic-Popovic I, Lovrencic-Huzjan A, Demarin V. Assessment of subtle cognitive impairment in stroke-free patients with carotid disease. Acta Clin Croat. 2009;48:231–40.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Martinic-Popovic I, Lovrencic-Huzjan A, Simundic A-M, Popovic A, Seric V, Demarin V. Cognitive performance in asymptomatic patients with advanced carotid disease. Cogn Behav Neurol. 2011;24:145–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  170. McLennan SN, Mathias JL, Brennan LC, Stewart S. Validity of the montreal cognitive assessment (MoCA) as a screening test for mild cognitive impairment (MCI) in a cardiovascular population. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2011;24:33–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  171. Cumming TB, Bernhardt J, Linden T. The montreal cognitive assessment: short cognitive evaluation in a large stroke trial. Stroke. 2011;42:2642–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Dong Y, Sharma VK, Chan BP-L, Venketasubramanian N, Teoh HL, Seet RCS, et al. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) is superior to the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) for the detection of vascular cognitive impairment after acute stroke. J Neurol Sci. 2010;299:15–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Pendlebury ST, Cuthbertson FC, Welch SJV, Mehta Z, Rothwell PM. Underestimation of cognitive impairment by Mini-Mental State Examination versus the Montreal Cognitive Assessment in patients with transient ischemic attack and stroke: a population-based study. Stroke. 2010;41:1290–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. Wong A, Kwan P, Chan A, Lam W, Wang K, Nyenhuis D, et al. The Validity, reliability and utility of the Cantonese Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) in Chinese patients with confluent white matter lesions. Hong Kong Med J. 2008;14(Suppl6):7.

    Google Scholar 

  175. Godefroy O, Fickl A, Roussel M, Auribault C, Bugnicourt JM, Lamy C, et al. Is the Montreal Cognitive Assessment superior to the Mini-Mental State Examination to detect poststroke cognitive impairment? A study with neuropsychological evaluation. Stroke. 2011;42:1712–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  176. Harkness K, Demers C, GA H, Mckelvie RS. Screening for cognitive deficits using the Montreal cognitive assessment tool in outpatients ≥65 years of age with heart failure. Am J Cardiol. 2011;107:1203–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  177. Athilingam P, King KB, Burgin SW, Ackerman M, Cushman LA, Chen L. Montreal Cognitive Assessment and Mini-Mental Status Examination compared as cognitive screening tools in heart failure. Heart Lung. 2011;40:521–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. Kasai M, Meguro K, Nakamura K, Nakatsuka M, Ouchi Y, Tanaka N. Screening for very mild subcortical vascular dementia patients aged 75 and above using the montreal cognitive assessment and mini-mental state examination in a community: the kurihara project. Dement Geriatr Cogn Dis Extra. 2012;2:503–15.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  179. Wong GKC, Lam S, Ngai K, Wong A, Mok V, Poon WS. Evaluation of cognitive impairment by the Montreal cognitive assessment in patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage: prevalence, risk factors and correlations with 3 month outcomes. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2012;83:1112–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  180. Schweizer TA, Al-Khindi T, Macdonald RL. Mini-Mental State Examination versus Montreal Cognitive Assessment: rapid assessment tools for cognitive and functional outcome after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurol Sci. 2012;316:137–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. Wu Y, Wang M, Ren M, Xu W. The effects of educational background on Montreal Cognitive Assessment screening for vascular cognitive impairment, no dementia, caused by ischemic stroke. J Clin Neurosci. 2013;20:1406–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. Wong GKC, Ngai K, Lam SW, Wong A, Mok V, Poon WS. Validity of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment for traumatic brain injury patients with intracranial haemorrhage. Brain Inj. 2013;27:394–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. Wong GKC, Lam SW, Wong A, Ngai K, Poon WS, Mok V. Comparison of montreal cognitive assessment and mini-mental state examination in evaluating cognitive domain deficit following aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage. PLoS One. 2013;8:e59946.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  184. Tu Q-Y, Jin H, Ding B-R, Yang X, Lei Z-H, Bai S, et al. Reliability, validity, and optimal cutoff score of the montreal cognitive assessment (changsha version) in ischemic cerebrovascular disease patients of hunan province, china. Dement Geriatr Cogn Dis Extra. 2013;3:25–36.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  185. Pendlebury ST, Welch SJV, Cuthbertson FC, Mariz J, Mehta Z, Rothwell PM. Telephone assessment of cognition after transient ischemic attack and stroke: modified telephone interview of cognitive status and telephone Montreal Cognitive Assessment versus face-to-face Montreal Cognitive Assessment and neuropsychological battery. Stroke. 2013;44:227–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  186. Ihara M, Okamoto Y, Takahashi R. Suitability of the Montreal cognitive assessment versus the mini-mental state examination in detecting vascular cognitive impairment. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2013;22:737–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Cumming TB, Churilov L, Linden T, Bernhardt J. Montreal Cognitive Assessment and Mini-Mental State Examination are both valid cognitive tools in stroke. Acta Neurol Scand. 2013;128:122–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. Ihara M, Okamoto Y, Hase Y, Takahashi R. Association of physical activity with the visuospatial/executive functions of the montreal cognitive assessment in patients with vascular cognitive impairment. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2013;22:e146–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. Webb AJS, Pendlebury ST, Li L, Simoni M, Lovett N, Mehta Z, et al. Validation of the Montreal cognitive assessment versus mini-mental state examination against hypertension and hypertensive arteriopathy after transient ischemic attack or minor stroke. Stroke. 2014;45:3337–42.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  190. Pasi M, Salvadori E, Poggesi A, Ciolli L, Del Bene A, Marini S, et al. White matter microstructural damage in small vessel disease is associated with Montreal cognitive assessment but not with mini mental state examination performances: vascular mild cognitive impairment Tuscany study. Stroke. 2015;46:262–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. Bocti C, Legault V, Leblanc N, Berger L, Nasreddine Z, Beaulieu-Boire I, et al. Vascular cognitive impairment: most useful subtests of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment in minor stroke and transient ischemic attack. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2013;36:154–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. Campbell N, Rice D, Friedman L, Speechley M, Teasell RW. Screening and facilitating further assessment for cognitive impairment after stroke: application of a shortened Montreal Cognitive Assessment (miniMoCA). Disabil Rehabil. 2016;38:601–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  193. Pasi M, Salvadori E, Poggesi A, Inzitari D, Pantoni L. Factors predicting the Montreal cognitive assessment (MoCA) applicability and performances in a stroke unit. J Neurol. 2013;260:1518–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  194. Horstmann S, Rizos T, Rauch G, Arden C, Veltkamp R. Feasibility of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment in acute stroke patients. Eur J Neurol. 2014;21:1387–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  195. Cameron J, Worrall-Carter L, Page K, Stewart S, Ski CF. Screening for mild cognitive impairment in patients with heart failure: Montreal cognitive assessment versus mini mental state exam. Eur J Cardiovasc Nurs. 2013;12:252–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  196. Loncar G, Bozic B, Lepic T, Dimkovic S, Prodanovic N, Radojicic Z, et al. Relationship of reduced cerebral blood flow and heart failure severity in elderly males. Aging Male. 2011;14:59–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  197. Gruhn N, Larsen FS, Boesgaard S, Knudsen GM, Mortensen SA, Thomsen G, et al. Cerebral blood flow in patients with chronic heart failure before and after heart transplantation. Stroke. 2001;32:2530–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  198. Pullicino PM, Hart J. Cognitive impairment in congestive heart failure?: Embolism vs hypoperfusion. Neurology. 2001;57:1945–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  199. Ball J, Carrington MJ, Stewart S. Mild cognitive impairment in high-risk patients with chronic atrial fibrillation: a forgotten component of clinical management? Heart. 2013;99:542–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  200. Cameron J, Worrall-Carter L, Page K, Riegel B, Lo SK, Stewart S. Does cognitive impairment predict poor self-care in patients with heart failure? Eur J Heart Failure. 2010;12:508–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  201. Harkness K, Heckman GA, Akhtar-Danesh N, Demers C, Gunn E, McKelvie RS. Cognitive function and self-care management in older patients with heart failure. Eur J Cardiovasc Nurs. 2014;13:277–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  202. McLennan SN, Mathias JL, Brennan LC, Russell ME, Stewart S. Cognitive impairment predicts functional capacity in dementia-free patients with cardiovascular disease. J Cardiovasc Nurs. 2010;25:390–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  203. Corbett A, Bennett H, Kos S. Cognitive dysfunction following subcortical infarction. Arch Neurol. 1994;51:999–1007.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  204. Corbett AJ, Bennett H, Kos S. Frontal signs following subcortical infarction. Clin Exp Neurol. 1992;29:161–71.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  205. Nagaratnam N, Bou-Haidar P, Leung H. Confused and disturbed behavior in the elderly following silent frontal lobe infarction. Am J Alzheimers Dis Other Demen. 2003;18:333–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  206. Xu Q, Zhou Y, Li Y-S, Cao W-W, Lin Y, Pan Y-M, et al. Diffusion tensor imaging changes correlate with cognition better than conventional MRI findings in patients with subcortical ischemic vascular disease. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2010;30:317–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  207. Baracchini C, Mazzalai F, Gruppo M, Lorenzetti R, Ermani M, Ballotta E. Carotid endarterectomy protects elderly patients from cognitive decline: a prospective study. Surgery. 2012;151:99–106.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  208. Marder K. Cognitive impairment and dementia in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2010;25 Suppl 1:S110–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  209. Caviness JN, Driver-Dunckley E, Connor DJ, Sabbagh MN, Hentz JG, Noble B, et al. Defining mild cognitive impairment in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2007;22:1272–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  210. Mamikonyan E, Moberg PJ, Siderowf A, Duda JE, Ten Have T, Hurtig HI, et al. Mild cognitive impairment is common in Parkinson’s disease patients with normal Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) scores. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2009;15:226–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  211. Williams-Gray CH, Foltynie T, Brayne CEG, Robbins TW, Barker RA. Evolution of cognitive dysfunction in an incident Parkinson’s disease cohort. Brain. 2007;130:1787–98.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  212. Cropley VL, Fujita M, Bara-Jimenez W, Brown AK, Zhang X-Y, Sangare J, et al. Pre- and post-synaptic dopamine imaging and its relation with frontostriatal cognitive function in Parkinson disease: PET studies with [11C]NNC 112 and [18 F]FDOPA. Psychiatry Res. 2008;163:171–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  213. Bohnen NI, Kaufer DI, Hendrickson R, Ivanco LS, Lopresti BJ, Constantine GM, et al. Cognitive correlates of cortical cholinergic denervation in Parkinson’s disease and parkinsonian dementia. J Neurol. 2006;253:242–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  214. Aarsland D, Larsen JP, Karlsen K, Lim NG, Tandberg E. Mental symptoms in Parkinson’s disease are important contributors to caregiver distress. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 1999;14:866–74.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  215. Maidment I, Fox C, Boustani M. Cholinesterase inhibitors for Parkinson’ s disease dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;(1):CD004747.

    Google Scholar 

  216. Gill DJ, Freshman A, Blender JA, Ravina B. The Montreal cognitive assessment as a screening tool for cognitive impairment in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2008;23:1043–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  217. Zadikoff C, Fox SH, Tang-Wai DF, Thomsen T, de Bie RM, Wadia P, et al. A comparison of the mini mental state exam to the Montreal cognitive assessment in identifying cognitive deficits in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2008;23:297–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  218. Nazem S, Siderowf A, Duda J, Ten Have T, Colcher A, Horn SS, et al. Montreal Cognitive Assessment performance in patients with Parkinson’s disease with “normal” global cognition according to Mini-Mental State Examination score. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2009;57:304–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  219. Hoops S, Nazem S, Siderowf AD, Duda JE, Xie SX, Stern MB, et al. Validity of the MoCA and MMSE in the detection of MCI and dementia in Parkinson disease. Neurology. 2009;73:1738–45.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  220. Dalrymple-Alford JC, MacAskill MR, Nakas CT, Livingston L, Graham C, Crucian GP, et al. The MoCA: well-suited screen for cognitive impairment in Parkinson disease. Neurology. 2010;75:1717–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  221. Luo X-G, Feng Y, Liu R, Yu H-M, Wang L, Wu Z, et al. Cognitive deterioration rates in patients with Parkinson’s disease from northeastern China. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2010;30(1):64–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  222. Robben SHM, Sleegers MJM, Dautzenberg PLJ, van Bergen FS, ter Bruggen J-P, Rikkert MGMO. Pilot study of a three-step diagnostic pathway for young and old patients with Parkinson’s disease dementia: screen, test and then diagnose. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2010;25:258–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  223. Chen L, Yu C, Fu X, Liu W, Hua P, Zhang N, et al. Using the Montreal Cognitive Assessment Scale to screen for dementia in Chinese patients with Parkinson’s disease. Shanghai Arch Psychiatry. 2013;25:296–305.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  224. Kandiah N, Zhang A, Cenina AR, Au WL, Nadkarni N, Tan LC. Montreal Cognitive Assessment for the screening and prediction of cognitive decline in early Parkinson’s disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2014;20:1145–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  225. Ozdilek B, Kenangil G. Validation of the Turkish Version of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment Scale (MoCA-TR) in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Clin Neuropsychol. 2014;28:333–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  226. Van Steenoven I, Aarsland D, Hurtig H, Chen-Plotkin A, Duda JE, Rick J, et al. Conversion between mini-mental state examination, montreal cognitive assessment, and dementia rating scale-2 scores in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2014;29:1809–15.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  227. Krishnan S, Justus S, Meluveettil R, Menon RN, Sarma SP, Kishore A. Validity of Montreal Cognitive Assessment in non-english speaking patients with Parkinson’s disease. Neurol India. 2015;63:63–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  228. Chung EJ, Seok K, Kim SJ. A comparison of montreal cognitive assessment between patients with visual hallucinations and without visual hallucinations in Parkinson’s disease. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2015;130:98–100.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  229. Hanna-Pladdy B, Enslein A, Fray M, Gajewski BJ, Pahwa R, Lyons KE. Utility of the NeuroTrax computerized battery for cognitive screening in Parkinson’s disease: comparison with the MMSE and the MoCA. Int J Neurosci. 2010;120:538–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  230. Chou KL, Amick MM, Brandt J, Camicioli R, Frei K, Gitelman D, et al. A recommended scale for cognitive screening in clinical trials of Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2010;25:2501–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  231. Lemiere J, Decruyenaere M, Evers-Kiebooms G, Vandenbussche E, Dom R. Longitudinal study evaluating neuropsychological changes in so-called asymptomatic carriers of the Huntington’s disease mutation after 1 year. Acta Neurol Scand. 2002;106:131–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  232. Lemiere J, Decruyenaere M, Evers-Kiebooms G, Vandenbussche E, Dom R. Cognitive changes in patients with Huntington’s disease (HD) and asymptomatic carriers of the HD mutation a longitudinal follow-up study. J Neurol. 2004;251:935–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  233. Verny C, Allain P, Prudean A, Malinge M-C, Gohier B, Scherer C, et al. Cognitive changes in asymptomatic carriers of the Huntington disease mutation gene. Eur J Neurol. 2007;14:1344–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  234. Hahn-Barma V, Deweer B, Dürr A, Dode C, Feingold J, Pillon B, et al. Are cognitive changes the first symptoms of Huntington’ s disease? A study of gene carriers. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1998;64:172–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  235. Bäckman L, Robins-Wahlin T-B, Lundin A, Ginovart N, Farde L. Cognitive deficits in Huntington’s disease are predicted by dopaminergic PET markers and brain volumes. Brain. 1997;120:2207–17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  236. Montoya A, Price BH, Menear M, Lepage M. Brain imaging and cognitive dysfunctions in Huntington’s disease. J Psychiatry Neurosci. 2006;31:21–9.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  237. Mickes L, Jacobson M, Peavy G, Wixted JT, Lessig S, Goldstein JL, et al. A Comparison of two brief screening measures of cognitive impairment in Huntington’s Disease. Mov Disord. 2010;25:2229–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  238. Videnovic A, Bernard B, Fan W, Jaglin J, Leurgans S, Shannon KM. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment as a screening tool for cognitive dysfunction in Huntington’s Disease. Mov Disord. 2010;25:401–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  239. Bezdicek O, Majerova V, Novak M, Nikolai T, Ruzicka E, Roth J. Validity of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment in the detection of cognitive dysfunction in Huntington’s disease. Appl Neuropsychol Adult. 2013;20:33–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  240. Gluhm S, Goldstein J, Brown D, Van Liew C, Gilbert PE, Corey-Bloom J. Usefulness of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) in Huntington’s disease. Mov Disord. 2013;28:1744–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  241. Olson RA, Chhanabhai T, McKenzie M. Feasibility study of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) in patients with brain metastases. Support Care Cancer. 2008;16:1273–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  242. Olson RA, Iverson GL, Carolan H, Parkinson M, Brooks BL, McKenzie M. Prospective comparison of two cognitive screening tests: diagnostic accuracy and correlation with community integration and quality of life. J Neurooncol. 2011;105:337–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  243. Meyers CA, Smith JA, Bezjak A, Mehta MP, Liebmann J, Illidge T, et al. Neurocognitive function and progression in patients with brain metastases treated with whole-brain radiation and motexafin gadolinium: results of a randomized phase III trial. J Clin Oncol. 2004;22:157–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  244. Chang EL, Wefel JS, Maor MH, Hassenbusch SJ, Mahajan A, Lang FF, et al. A pilot study of neurocognitive function in patients with one to three new brain metastases initially treated with stereotactic radiosurgery alone. Neurosurgery. 2007;60:277–83; discussion 283–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  245. Olson R, Tyldesley S, Carolan H, Parkinson M, Chhanabhai T, McKenzie M. Prospective comparison of the prognostic utility of the Mini Mental State Examination and the Montreal Cognitive Assessment in patients with brain metastases. Support Care Cancer. 2011;19:1849–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  246. Hanly JG, Fisk JD, Sherwood G, Jones E, Jones JV, Eastwood B. Cognitive impairment in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol. 1992;19:562–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  247. Kozora E, Arciniegas DB, Filley CM, Ellison MC, West SG, Brown MS, et al. Cognition, MRS neurometabolites, and MRI volumetrics in non-neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus: preliminary data. Cogn Behav Neurol. 2005;18:159–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  248. Kozora E, Arciniegas DB, Filley CM, West SG, Brown M, Miller D, et al. Cognitive and neurologic status in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus without major neuropsychiatric syndromes. Arthritis Rheum. 2008;59:1639–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  249. Monastero R, Bettini P, Del Zotto E, Cottini E, Tincani A, Balestrieri G, et al. Prevalence and pattern of cognitive impairment in systemic lupus erythematosus patients with and without overt neuropsychiatric manifestations. J Neurol Sci. 2001;184:33–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  250. Carlomagno S, Migliaresi S, Ambrosone L, Sannino M, Sanges G, Di Iorio G. Cognitive impairment in systemic lupus erythematosus: a follow-up study. J Neurol. 2000;247:273–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  251. Carbotte RM, Denburg SD, Denburg JA. Prevalence of cognitive impairment in systemic lupus erythematosus. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1986;174:357–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  252. Kozora E, Thompson LL, West SG, Kotzin BL. Analysis of cognitive and psychological deficits in systemic lupus erythematosus patients without overt central nervous system disease. Arthritis Rheum. 1996;39:2035–45.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  253. Filley CM, Kozora E, Brown MS, Miller DE, West SG, Arciniegas DB, et al. White matter microstructure and cognition in non-neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus. Cogn Behav Neurol. 2009;22:38–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  254. Denburg SD, Carbotte RM, Denburg JA. Cognitive impairment in systemic lupus erythematosus: a neuropsychological study of individual and group deficits. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 1987;9:323–39.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  255. Leritz E, Brandt J, Minor M, Reis-Jensen F, Petri M. “Subcortical” cognitive impairment in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2000;6:821–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  256. Loukkola J, Laine M, Ainiala H, Peltola J, Metsänoja R, Auvinen A, et al. Cognitive impairment in systemic lupus erythematosus and neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus: a population-based neuropsychological study. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2003;25:145–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  257. Adhikari T, Piatti A, Luggen M. Cognitive dysfunction in SLE: development of a screening tool. Lupus. 2011;20:1142–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  258. Copersino ML, Fals-Stewart W, Fitzmaurice G, Schretlen DJ, Sokoloff J, Weiss RD. Rapid cognitive screening of patients with substance use disorders. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 2009;17:337–44.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  259. Thorpy MJ. International classification of sleep disorders, revised: diagnostic and coding manual. International classification. Chicago: American Academy of Sleep Medicine; 2001. p. 177–80.

    Google Scholar 

  260. Gagnon J-F, Vendette M, Postuma RB, Desjardins C, Massicotte-Marquez J, Panisset M, et al. Mild cognitive impairment in rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder and Parkinson’s disease. Ann Neurol. 2009;66:39–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  261. Strambi LF, Di Gioia MR, Castronovo V, Oldani A, Zucconi M. Neuropsychological assessment in idiopathic REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) does the idiopathic form of RBD really exist? Neurology. 2004;62:41–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  262. Iranzo A, Molinuevo JL, Santamaría J, Serradell M, Martí MJ, Valldeoriola F, et al. Rapid-eye-movement sleep behaviour disorder as an early marker for a neurodegenerative disorder: a descriptive study. Lancet Neurol. 2006;5:572–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  263. Boeve BF, Silber MH, Ferman TJ, Lucas JA, Parisi JE. Association of REM sleep behavior disorder and neurodegenerative disease may reflect an underlying synucleinopathy. Mov Disord. 2001;16:622–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  264. Claassen DO, Josephs KA, Ahlskog JE, Silber MH, Tippmann-Peikert M, Boeve BF. REM sleep behavior disorder preceding other aspects of synucleinopathies by up to half a century. Neurology. 2010;75:494–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  265. Mori E, Shimomura T, Fujimori M, Hirono N, Imamura T, Hashimoto M, et al. Visuoperceptual impairment in dementia with Lewy bodies. Arch Neurol. 2000;57:489–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  266. Gagnon J-F, Postuma RB, Joncas S, Desjardins C, Latreille V. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment: a screening tool for mild cognitive impairment in REM sleep behavior disorder. Mov Disord. 2010;25:936–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  267. Villeneuve S. Mild Cognitive Impairment in moderate to severe COPD: a preliminary study. Chest. 2012;142:1516–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  268. Dulohery MM, Schroeder DR, Benzo RP. Cognitive function and living situation in COPD: is there a relationship with self-management and quality of life? Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2015;10:1883–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  269. Crişan AF, Oancea C, Timar B, Fira-Mladinescu O, Crişan A, Tudorache V. Cognitive impairment in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. PLoS One. 2014;9:e102468.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  270. Dodd JW, Charlton RA, van den Broek MD, Jones PW. Cognitive dysfunction in patients hospitalized with acute exacerbation of COPD. Chest. 2013;144:119–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  271. Chen R, Xiong KP, Huang JY, Lian YX, Jin F, Li ZH, et al. Neurocognitive impairment in Chinese patients with obstructive sleep apnoea hypopnoea syndrome. Respirology. 2011;16:842–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  272. Chen X, Zhang R, Xiao Y, Dong J, Niu X, Kong W. Reliability and Validity of the Beijing Version of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment in the Evaluation of Cognitive Function of Adult Patients with OSAHS. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0132361.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  273. Liu-Ambrose TY, Ashe MC, Graf P, Beattie BL, Khan KM. Increased risk of falling in older community-dwelling women with mild cognitive impairment. Phys Ther. 2008;88:1482–91.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  274. Hwang S, Woo Y, Kim K-H, Ki K-I. Effects of falls experience on cognitive functions and physical activities in community-dwelling individuals with chronic stroke. Int J Rehabil Res. 2013;36:134–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  275. Aggarwal A, Kean E. Comparison of the Folstein Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE) to the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) as a cognitive screening tool in an inpatient rehabilitation setting.PDF. Neurosci Med. 2010;1:39–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  276. Sweet L, Van Adel M, Metcalf V, Wright L, Harley A, Leiva R, et al. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) in geriatric rehabilitation: psychometric properties and association with rehabilitation outcomes. Int Psychogeriatr. 2011;23:1582–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  277. Heruti RJ, Lusky A, Dankner R, Ring H, Dolgopiat M, Barell V, et al. Rehabilitation outcome of elderly patients after a first stroke: effect of cognitive status at admission on the functional outcome. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2002;83:742–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  278. Heruti RJ, Lusky A, Barell V, Ohry A, Adunsky A. Cognitive status at admission: does it affect the rehabilitation outcome of elderly patients with hip fracture? Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1999;80:432–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  279. Barnes C, Conner D, Legault L, Reznickova N, Harrison-Felix C. Rehabilitation outcomes in cognitively impaired patients admitted to skilled nursing facilities from the community. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;85:1602–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  280. Toglia J, Fitzgerald KA, O’Dell MW, Mastrogiovanni AR, Lin CD. The Mini-Mental State Examination and Montreal Cognitive Assessment in persons with mild subacute stroke: relationship to functional outcome. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2011;92:792–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  281. Wagle J, Farner L, Flekkøy K, Bruun Wyller T, Sandvik L, Fure B, et al. Early post-stroke cognition in stroke rehabilitation patients predicts functional outcome at 13 months. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2011;31:379–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  282. Phabphal K, Kanjanasatien J. Montreal Cognitive Assessment in cryptogenic epilepsy patients with normal Mini-Mental State Examination scores. Epileptic Disord. 2011;13:375–81.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  283. Hasbun R, Eraso J, Ramireddy S, Wainwright DA, Salazar L, Grimes R, et al. Screening for neurocognitive impairment in HIV individuals: the utility of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment test. J AIDS Clin Res. 2012;3:186.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  284. Janssen MAM, Bosch M, Koopmans PP, Kessels RPC. Validity of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment and the HIV Dementia Scale in the assessment of cognitive impairment in HIV-1 infected patients. J Neurovirol. 2015;21:383–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  285. Overton ET, Azad TD, Parker N, Demarco Shaw D, Frain J, Spitz T, et al. The Alzheimer’s disease-8 and Montreal Cognitive Assessment as screening tools for neurocognitive impairment in HIV-infected persons. J Neurovirol. 2013;19:109–16.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  286. Robbins RN, Joska JA, Thomas KGF, Stein DJ, Linda T, Mellins CA, et al. Exploring the utility of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment to detect HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder: the challenge and need for culturally valid screening tests in South Africa. Clin Neuropsychol. 2013;27:437–54.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  287. Chartier M, Crouch P-C, Tullis V, Catella S, Frawley E, Filanosky C, et al. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment: a pilot study of a brief screening tool for mild and moderate cognitive impairment in HIV-positive veterans. J Int Assoc Provid AIDS Care. 2015;14:197–201.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  288. Freitas S, Simões MR, Alves L, Duro D, Santana I. Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA): validation study for frontotemporal dementia. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2012;25:146–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  289. Kaur D, Kumar G, Singh AK. Quick screening of cognitive function in Indian multiple sclerosis patients using Montreal cognitive assessment test-short version. Ann Indian Acad Neurol. 2013;16:585–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  290. Dagenais E, Rouleau I, Demers M, Jobin C, Roger E, Chamelian L, et al. Value of the MoCA test as a screening instrument in multiple sclerosis. Can J Neurol Sci. 2013;40:410–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  291. Alagiakrishnan K, Zhao N, Mereu L, Senior P, Senthilselvan A. Montreal Cognitive Assessment is superior to Standardized Mini-Mental Status Exam in detecting mild cognitive impairment in the middle-aged and elderly patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. BioMed Res Int. 2013;2013:186106.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  292. De Guise E, Alturki AY, LeBlanc J, Champoux M-C, Couturier C, Lamoureux J, et al. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment in persons with traumatic brain injury. Appl Neuropsychol Adult. 2014;21:128–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  293. Oudman E, Postma A, Van der Stigchel S, Appelhof B, Wijnia JW, Nijboer TCW. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) is superior to the Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE) in detection of Korsakoff’s syndrome. Clin Neuropsychol. 2014;28:1123–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  294. Tiffin-Richards FE, Costa AS, Holschbach B, Frank RD, Vassiliadou A, Krüger T, et al. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) – a sensitive screening instrument for detecting cognitive impairment in chronic hemodialysis patients. PLoS One. 2014;9:e106700.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  295. Wu C, Dagg P, Molgat C. A pilot study to measure cognitive impairment in patients with severe schizophrenia with the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA). Schizophr Res. 2014;158:151–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  296. Dag E, Örnek N, Örnek K, Günay F, Türkel Y. Mini mental state exam versus Montreal cognitive assessment in patients with age-related macular degeneration. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2014;18:3025–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  297. Musso MW, Cohen AS, Auster TL, McGovern JE. Investigation of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) as a cognitive screener in severe mental illness. Psychiatry Res. 2014;220:664–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  298. Osborne RA, Sekhon R, Johnston W, Kalra S. Screening for frontal lobe and general cognitive impairment in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J Neurol Sci. 2014;336:191–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  299. Gierus J, Mosiołek A, Koweszko T, Wnukiewicz P, Kozyra O, Szulc A. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment as a preliminary assessment tool in general psychiatry: Validity of MoCA in psychiatric patients. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2015;37:476–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  300. Ogurel T, Oğurel R, Özer MA, Türkel Y, Dağ E, Örnek K. Mini-mental state exam versus Montreal Cognitive Assessment in patients with diabetic retinopathy. Niger J Clin Pract. 2015;18:786–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  301. Hollis AM, Duncanson H, Kapust LR, Xi PM, O’Connor MG. Validity of the mini-mental state examination and the montreal cognitive assessment in the prediction of driving test outcome. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2015;63:988–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  302. Razali R, Jean-Li L, Jaffar A, Ahmad M, Shah SA, Ibrahim N, et al. Is the Bahasa Malaysia version of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA-BM) a better instrument than the Malay version of the Mini Mental State Examination (M-MMSE) in screening for mild cognitive impairment (MCI) in the elderly? Compr Psychiatry. 2014;55 Suppl 1:S70–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  303. Sahathevan R, Mohd Ali K, Ellery F, Mohamad NF, Hamdan N, Mohd Ibrahim N, et al. A Bahasa Malaysia version of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment: validation in stroke. Int Psychogeriatr. 2014;26:781–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  304. Martinelli JE, Cecato JF, Bartholomeu D, Montiel JM. Comparison of the diagnostic accuracy of neuropsychological tests in differentiating Alzheimer’s disease from mild cognitive impairment: can the Montreal cognitive assessment be better than the Cambridge cognitive examination? Dement Geriatr Cogn Dis Extra. 2014;4:113–21.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  305. Tan J, Li N, Gao J, Wang L, Zhao Y, Yu B, et al. Optimal cutoff scores for dementia and mild cognitive impairment of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment among elderly and oldest-old Chinese population. J Alzheimers Dis. 2015;43:1403–12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  306. Wong A, Nyenhuis D, Black SE, Law LSN, Lo ESK, Kwan PWL, et al. Montreal Cognitive Assessment 5-minute protocol is a brief, valid, reliable, and feasible cognitive screen for telephone administration. Stroke. 2015;46:1059–64.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  307. Dong Y, Yean Lee W, Hilal S, Saini M, Wong TY, Chen CL-H, et al. Comparison of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment and the Mini-Mental State Examination in detecting multi-domain mild cognitive impairment in a Chinese sub-sample drawn from a population-based study. Int Psychogeriatr. 2013;25:1831–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  308. Thissen AJAM, van Bergen F, de Jonghe JFM, Kessels RPC, Dautzenberg PLJ. Applicability and validity of the Dutch version of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA-d) in diagnosing MCI. Tijdschr Gerontol Geriatr. 2010;41:231–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  309. Malek-Ahmadi M, Powell JJ, Belden CM, O’Connor K, Evans L, Coon DW, et al. Age- and education-adjusted normative data for the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) in older adults age 70–99. Neuropsychol Dev Cogn B Aging Neuropsychol Cogn. 2015;22:755–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  310. Kenny RA, Coen RF, Frewen J, Donoghue OA, Cronin H, Savva GM. Normative values of cognitive and physical function in older adults: findings from the Irish Longitudinal Study on Ageing. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2013;61 Suppl 2:S279–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  311. Dominguez JC, Orquiza MGS, Soriano JR, Magpantay CD, Esteban RC, Corrales ML, et al. Adaptation of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment for elderly Filipino patients. East Asian Arch Psychiatry. 2013;23:80–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  312. Costa AS, Fimm B, Friesen P, Soundjock H, Rottschy C, Gross T, et al. Alternate-form reliability of the Montreal cognitive assessment screening test in a clinical setting. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2012;33:379–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  313. Volosin M, Janacsek K, Németh D. Hungarian version of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) for screening mild cognitive impairment. Psychiatr Hung. 2013;28:370–92.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  314. Santangelo G, Siciliano M, Pedone R, Vitale C, Falco F, Bisogno R, et al. Normative data for the Montreal Cognitive Assessment in an Italian population sample. Neurol Sci. 2015;36:585–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  315. Conti S, Bonazzi S, Laiacona M, Masina M, Coralli MV. Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA)-Italian version: regression based norms and equivalent scores. Neurol Sci. 2015;36:209–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  316. Suzuki H, Kawai H, Hirano H, Yoshida H, Ihara K, Kim H, et al. One-year change in the Japanese Version of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment performance and related predictors in community-dwelling older adults. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2015;63:1874–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  317. Washida K, Ihara M, Tachibana H, Sekiguchi K, Kowa H, Kanda F, et al. Association of the ASCO classification with the executive function subscores of the Montreal cognitive assessment in patients with postischemic stroke. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2014;23:2250–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  318. Fujiwara Y, Suzuki H, Kawai H, Hirano H, Yoshida H, Kojima M, et al. Physical and sociopsychological characteristics of older community residents with mild cognitive impairment as assessed by the Japanese version of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2013;26:209–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  319. Sikaroodi H, Yadegari S, Miri SR. Cognitive impairments in patients with cerebrovascular risk factors: a comparison of Mini Mental Status Exam and Montreal Cognitive Assessment. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2013;115:1276–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  320. Gierus J, Mosiołek A, Koweszko T, Kozyra O, Wnukiewicz P, Łoza B, et al. The Montreal cognitive assessment 7.2 – Polish adaptation and research on equivalency. Psychiatr Pol. 2015;49:171–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  321. Freitas S, Simões MR, Alves L, Santana I. Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA): normative study for the Portuguese population. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2011;33:989–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  322. Freitas S, Simões MR, Alves L, Santana I. Montreal Cognitive Assessment: influence of sociodemographic and health variables. Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 2012;27:165–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  323. Freitas S, Prieto G, Simões MR, Santana I. Psychometric properties of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA): an analysis using the Rasch model. Clinical Neuropsychol. 2014;28:65–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  324. Gómez F, Zunzunegui M, Lord C, Alvarado B, García A. Applicability of the MoCA-S test in populations with little education in Colombia. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2013;28:813–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  325. Zhou Y, Ortiz F, Nuñez C, Elashoff D, Woo E, Apostolova LG, et al. Use of the MoCA in Detecting Early Alzheimer’s Disease in a Spanish-Speaking Population with Varied Levels of Education. Dement Geriatr Cogn Dis Extra. 2015;5:85–95.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  326. Kaya Y, Aki OE, Can UA, Derle E, Kibaroğlu S, Barak A. Validation of Montreal Cognitive Assessment and Discriminant Power of Montreal Cognitive Assessment Subtests in Patients With Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer Dementia in Turkish Population. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2014;27:103–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  327. Dupuis K, Pichora-Fuller MK, Chasteen AL, Marchuk V, Singh G, Smith SL. Effects of hearing and vision impairments on the Montreal Cognitive Assessment. Neuropsychol Dev Cogn B Aging Neuropsychol Cogn. 2015;22:413–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  328. Wittich W, Phillips N, Nasreddine ZS, Chertkow H. Sensitivity and specificity of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment modified for individuals who are visually impaired. J Vis Impair Blind. 2010;104:360–8.

    Google Scholar 

  329. Julayanont P, Tangwongchai S, Hemrungrojn S, et al. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment-Basic: a screening tool for mild cognitive impairment in illiterate and low-educated elderly adults. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2015;63:2550–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand

    Parunyou Julayanont

  2. Department of Neurology, Texas Tech University Health Science Center, Lubbock, TX, USA

    Parunyou Julayanont

  3. MoCA Clinic and Institute, Greenfield Park, QC, Canada

    Parunyou Julayanont & Ziad S. Nasreddine

  4. McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada

    Ziad S. Nasreddine

  5. Sherbrooke University, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada

    Ziad S. Nasreddine

Authors
  1. Parunyou Julayanont
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ziad S. Nasreddine
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ziad S. Nasreddine .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Cognitive Function Clinic, Walton Centre for Neurology and Neurosurgery, Liverpool, UK

    A. J. Larner

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2017 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Julayanont, P., Nasreddine, Z.S. (2017). Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA): Concept and Clinical Review. In: Larner, A.J. (eds) Cognitive Screening Instruments. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-44775-9_7

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-44775-9_7

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-44774-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-44775-9

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation