Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Geomechanical, durability–hygrothermal and thermal shock properties of Kocaeli Kandira stone used as building stone in historical structures

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Environmental Earth Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study investigated the mineralogical, chemical, physical, mechanical, durability–hygrothermal, thermal shock properties, and economic aspects of the Kandira stone, one of the well-known natural building stones, commonly used in many historical structures in the Marmara and Thrace regions. Especially, it has been preferred to Malta stone in historical structures in Istanbul due to economic reasons at the beginning of the 1900s. A similar appearance and lithology with Malta stone and closeness of the Kandıra stone to İstanbul made it attractive to be used as natural building stone in historical monuments and new structures. The mean physico-mechanical properties of Kandira stone yielded 2.24 g/cm3 apparent density, 2.72 specific gravity, 19.21% total porosity, 5.8% water absorption by weight, 48 MPa compressive strength, 11.4 MPa bending strength. In terms of durability properties, Kandira stone has high resistance to aging by CaCl salt mist and no or low resistance to SO2 aging in a humid environment. Also, the freeze–thaw test of Kandira stone yielded an exceptionally low mass loss (0.11%) indicating that the stone is resistant to freeze–thaw effect. Thermal shock tests indicated that Kandira stone is mainly resistant to thermal shock cycles. Economically, the calculated probable reserve of Kandira stone resulted in 40.8 × 106 tons of material and the potential economic value based on the probable reserve is calculated around 54.672 × 109 TL (approximately €7.2B). In conclusion, this study defined the petrographic, geomechanical, durability–hygrothermal and thermal shock properties essential for the use of Kandira stone as building stone and restoration material.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

Data used in the manuscript were obtained from an accredited natural building stone laboratory (AKU-NSL) and are given through the Tables in the manuscript.

References

  • Anon. (1979s) Classification of rocks and soils for engineering geological mapping. Part 1-rock and soil materials. Bull Int Assoc Eng Geol 19:364–371

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arman H, Ramazanoglu S, Akinci A (2007) Mechanical and physical properties of the Kandira stone, Kandira, Turkey. Bull Eng Geol Environ 66(3):331–333

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arman H, Ramazanoglu S, Goktepe F, Ozsoy EA, Yilmaz G (2010) Importance of geological and geotechnical properties of Kandıra stone in civil engineering applications. In: Proceedings of the European rock mechanics symposium (Eurock 2010) 831-834, Lausanne, Switzerland

  • AS 4586 (2013) Slip resistance classification of new pedestrian surface materials. Standards Australia, Sydney, New South Wales

  • ASTM D 5550-06 (2009) Standard test method for specific gravity of soil solids by gas pycnometer. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA

  • Aydın Ipekci C, Aydın EO (2017) Local building materials resources: Kocaeli. Int Refereed J Des Arch 12:98–129. https://doi.org/10.17365/TMD.2017.3.4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aydındag A, Erkanol D (2011) Kandıra Taşı’nın (Kocaeli) Yapı Taşı Olarak Kullanılabilirliğinin Araştırılması. MTA Maden Etüt ve Arama Dairesi Başkanlığı Teknik Rapor, Ankara (in Turkish)

  • Barton N (1978) Suggested methods for the quantitative description of discontinuities in rock masses. International Society of Rock Mechanics Commission on Standardization of Laboratory and Field Tests. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech Abstr 15:319–368

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bell FG (1993) Durability of carbonate rock as building stone with comments on its preservation. Environ Geol 21(4):187–200. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00775905

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blows JF, Carey PJ, Poole AB (2003) Preliminary investigations into Caen Stone in the UK: its use, weathering and comparison with repair stone. Build Environ 38(9–10):1143–1149

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bozkurtoglu E, Mert E (2012) Strength and slake durability relation of Kandıra Stone. Kocaeli-Turkey. J Appl Earth Sci 11(1):30–50

    Google Scholar 

  • Celik MY (2003) Types and usage areas of the decorative natural building stones. Sci Min J 42(1):3–15

    Google Scholar 

  • Cobanoglu I, Celik SB (2017) Assessments on the usability of wide wheel (Capon) test as a reference abrasion test method for building stones. Constr Build Mater 151:319–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.06.045

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coruk O, Karakas A, Ozer C, Mert E (2001) Production of engineering geological maps for the Izmit and vicinity areas by using GIS. Kocaeli University Scientific Research Project, Kocaeli, pp 99–119

  • Coskun G, Sarıısık G, Sarıısık A (2017) Slip safety risk analysis of surface properties using the coefficients of friction of rocks. Int J Occup Saf Ergon 25(3):443–457. https://doi.org/10.1080/10803548.2017.1395594

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dal M, Angi SO, Eyüboğlu R (2007) İstanbuldaki bazı tarihi yapılarda kullanılan yapı taşlarının kökenleri ve getirildikleri yerler. Mimarlıkta Malzeme Dergisi 4:72–76 (in Turkish)

    Google Scholar 

  • Deere DU, Miller RP (1966) Engineering classifications and index properties of intact rock. Technical Report No: AFWL-TR 65-116, University of Illinois, USA, p 300

  • Ellul M (2010) Malta limestone goes to Europe: use of Malta stone outside Malta. The Malta Historical Society. http://maltahistory.eu5.net/60/60_25.html

  • Folk RL (1968) Petrology of sedimentary rocks. Hemphill Publishing Company, Austin, p 170

    Google Scholar 

  • Gatt PA (2006) Model of limestone weathering and damage in masonry: Sedimentological and geotechnical controls in the Globigerina Limestone Formation (Miocene) of Malta. J Malta Chamb Sci Xjenza 11:30–39

    Google Scholar 

  • Gedik İ, Pehlivan Ş, Timur E, Duru M (2005) 1:50000 ölçekli Türkiye jeoloji haritaları No:13. İstanbul F23c paftası, Maden Tetkik ve Arama Genel Müdürlüğü Jeoloji Etütleri Dairesi (in Turkish)

  • Hajpa´l M, Török A (2004) Mineralogical and color changes of quartz sandstones by heat. Environ Geol 46:311–322. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-004-1034-z

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • HB 198 (2014) Guide to the specification and testing of slip resistance of pedestrian surfaces. Handbook, Standards Australia, Sydney, New South Wales

  • ISRM (1981) Rock characterization, testing and monitoring. In: Brown ET (ed) 1981. International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM) Suggested Methods. Pergamon, Oxford, p 211

  • Kahraman N, Arıkan R (2016) Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi Belgelerinde Karamürsel Taşı ve İzmit Bölgesi Diğer Taş Ocakları. Uluslararası Kara Mürsel Alp ve Kocaeli Tarihi Sempozyumu II Kocaeli c III:1863–1876 (in Turkish)

    Google Scholar 

  • Kock TD, Turmel A, Fronteau G, Cnudde V (2017) Rock fabric heterogeneity and its influence on the petrophysical properties of a building limestone: Lede Stone (Belgium) as an example. Eng Geol 216(1):31–41

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moralı G (2019) Determination of building stone properties and economic potential of Kocaeli Kandıra Stone. M.Sc. Dissertation, Kocaeli University Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences

  • Ozkan FS (2018) Investigation of the use of limestones as a natural building block in Unlupınar (Kelkit-Gumushane) region. Undergr Resour J 7(13):37–62

    Google Scholar 

  • Rickman D, Street KW (2008) Some expected mechanical characteristics of lunar dust: a geological view. In: Proceedings of the space technology and applications international forum, Albuquerque, NM

  • Rothert E, Eggers T, Cassar J, Ruedrich J, Fitzner B, Siegesmund S (2007) Stone properties and weathering induced by salt crystallization of Maltese Globigerina Limestone. Building stone decay: from diagnosis to conservation. Geol Soc Lond Spec Publ 271:189–198. https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2007.271.01.19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Selim HH, Karakas A, Coruk O (2019) Investigation of engineering properties for usability of Lefke stone (Osmaneli/Bilecik) as building stone. Bull Eng Geol Environ 78:6047–6059. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-019-01520-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siegesmund S, Dürrast H (2011) Physical and mechanical properties of rocks. In: Siegesmund S, Snethlage R (eds) Stone in architecture. Springer, Berlin. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-14475-2_3

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Siegesmund S, Ullemeyer K, Weiss T, Tschegg EK (2000) Physical weathering of marbles caused by anisotropic thermal expansion. Int J Earth Sci 89:170–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s005310050324

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Snethlage R (2005) Leitfaden zur Steinkonservierung. Fraunhofer IRB Verlag, p 347

  • Taghipour M, Nikudel MR, Farhadian MB (2016) Engineering properties, and durability of limestones used in Persepolis complex, Iran, against acid solutions. Bull Eng Geol Environ 75:967–978. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-015-0821-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Török Á, Přikryl R (2010) Current methods and future trends in testing, durability analyses and provenance studies of natural stones used in historical monuments. Eng Geol 115(3–4):139–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2010.07.003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • TS 11137 (1993) Limestone - used for building and facing. Turkish Standards Institution, Ankara

  • TS 699 (2009) Methods of testing for natural building stones. Turkish Standards Institution, Ankara

  • TS EN 12370 (2001) Determination of resistance to salt crystallization. Turkish Standards Institution, Ankara

  • TS EN 12371 (2011) Determination of frost resistance. Turkish Standards Institution, Ankara

  • TS EN 12372 (2013) Determination of flexural strength under a concentrated load. Turkish Standards Institution, Ankara

  • TS EN 12407 (2013) Natural stone test methods-petrographic examination. Turkish Standards Institution, Ankara

  • TS EN 13161 (2014) Determination of flexural strength under constant moment. Turkish Standards Institution, Ankara

  • TS EN 13364 (2003) Determination of breaking load at dowel hole. Turkish Standards Institution, Ankara

  • TS EN 13755 (2014) Determination of water absorption at atmospheric pressure. Turkish Standards Institution, Ankara

  • TS EN 13919 (2004) Determination of resistance to ageing by SO2 action in the presence of humidity. Turkish Standards Institution, Ankara

  • TS EN 14066 (2015) Natural stone test methods-determination of resistance to ageing by thermal shock. Turkish Standards Institution, Ankara

  • TS EN 14147 (2004) Natural stone test methods-determination of resistance to ageing by salt mist. Turkish Standards Institution, Ankara, p 10

  • TS EN 14157 (2017) Determination of the abrasion resistance. Turkish Standards Institution, Ankara

  • TS EN 14158 (2004) Natural stone test methods-determination of rupture energy. Turkish Standards Institution, Ankara

  • TS EN 14205 (2004) Natural stone test methods-determination of Knoop hardness. Turkish Standards Institution, Ankara

  • TS EN 14231 (2004) Determination of the slip resistance by means of the pendulum tester. Turkish Standards Institution, Ankara

  • TS EN 14579 (2015) Determination of sound speed propagation. Turkish Standards Institution, Ankara

  • TS EN 15309 (2008) Determination of elemental composition by X-Ray fluorescence. Turkish Standards Institution, Ankara

  • TS EN 1925 (2000) Determination of water absorption coefficient by capillarity. Turkish Standards Institution, Ankara

  • TS EN 1926 (2000) Determination of compressive strength. Turkish Standards Institution, Ankara

  • TS EN 1936 (2001) Determination of real density and apparent density and of total and open porosity. Turkish Standards Institution, Ankara

  • TS EN ISO 12572 (2016) Hygrothermal performance of building materials and products-determination of water vapour transmission properties-cup method. Turkish Standards Institution, Ankara

  • Uğuryol D (2020) Evaluation of preservation problems of the historical gardens and their architectural elements considering the palaces and pavilions in Istanbul. Middle East Tech Univ J Fac Arch 37(1):225–252. https://doi.org/10.4305/METU.JFA.2020.1.4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Unal M, Altunok E (2019) Determination of water absorption properties of natural building stones and their relation to porosity. Eng Sci 14(1):39–45. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/nwsaeng/issue/42900/487872

  • Yagiz S (2009) Bascesme formation (Bascesme-Denizli) usability of dolomitic limestone member as building stone. Suleyman Demirel Univ J Inst Sci 13(3):265–270

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank to Kocaeli University BAP Coordination Unit for providing financial support to the 2019/020 BAP project, which provided the basic data essential for the preparation of this article. Also, a sincere gratitude is extended to AKU-NSL and Gunay Acıkgoz for his assistance during the fieldwork.

Funding

The study was supported by the Kocaeli University Scientific Research Projects (BAP) Coordination Unit through a research project (BAP project #2019/020).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Kocaeli University, Engineering Faculty, Geological Engineering Department, Umuttepe Campus, İzmit, Kocaeli, Turkey

    Ahmet Karakaş & Özkan Coruk

  2. Kocaeli University, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Geological Engineering Department, Umuttepe Campus, İzmit, Kocaeli, Turkey

    Gülcan Morali

  3. Department of Geological Engineering, Faculty of Mines, İstanbul Technical University, Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey

    Erkan Bozkurtoğlu

Authors
  1. Ahmet Karakaş
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Gülcan Morali
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Özkan Coruk
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Erkan Bozkurtoğlu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Each author has made the necessary contribution for the subjects related to her/his field.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ahmet Karakaş.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

Not applicable.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Karakaş, A., Morali, G., Coruk, Ö. et al. Geomechanical, durability–hygrothermal and thermal shock properties of Kocaeli Kandira stone used as building stone in historical structures. Environ Earth Sci 80, 130 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-09426-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-09426-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation