Abstract
Derbendikhan Reservoir is located 60 km southeast of Sulaimani City in Kurdistan Region, northeastern Iraq. Water hydrochemistry of Derbendikhan Reservoir is examined to assess its quality and the effect of human activities such as waste disposal, agricultural uses, and industrial pollution. Forty-four water samples were collected and investigated using standard methods. Sampling was conducted during low- and high-flow periods (LFP and HFP). The studies included physicochemical variables such as electrical conductivity (EC), temperature, total dissolved solids (TDS), salinity, and pH. The water of HFP was more alkaline (pH 8.5) than that of LFP (pH 7.7). The EC was < 1000 μS/cm in all water samples indicating fresh water. The major ions of these waters in their order of dominance during LFP and HFP were Ca2+ (50.4, 37.4) > Mg2+ (13, 10.9) > Na+ (10, 9.0) > K+ (2.5, 2) and HCO3− (129, 112) > SO42− (66, 46.3) > Cl− (13, 8.1) > NO3− (0.37, 3.21). Physicochemical parameters showed slightly higher values of HFP than LFP. All of these variables were within the drinking water quality standards of the World Health Organization. The overall results of sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and salinity hazard showed that the studied water is clean for drinking and irrigation purposes. Piper, Schoeller, and Gibbs diagrams were used to assess the water characteristics which showed that they are Ca-bicarbonate, and relatively enriched in Mg2+ and SO42− during HFP and LFP. These imply that the waters of Derbendikhan Reservoir were originated from the chemically weathered carbonate- and gypsum-dominated rocks covering the drainage basin in the area. The hydrochemical studies also indicated that Tanjero and Sirwan rivers feeding Derbendikhan Reservoir has no significant polluting effect on these waters. The significant positive correlation suggests that the leading cations come from all kinds of bicarbonates and sulfates. Most of the physicochemical characteristics of water showed slight decrease with time.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abraham G, Jorge F (2011) The effect of daily consumption of 2 liters of electrolyzed water for 2 months on body composition and several physiological parameters in four obese subjects: a preliminary report. High beam Research. Original Internist. Retrieved from http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-269433201.html
Adebo BA, Adetoyinbo AA (2009) Assessment of groundwater quality in unconsolidated sedimentary coastal aquifer in Lagos State, Nigeria. Sci Res Essay 4(4):314–319
Adeyemi GO, Adesile AO, Obayomi OM (2003) Chemical characteristics of some well waters in Ikire, Southwestern Nigeria. Water Resour J Niger Assoc Hydrogeol 14:12–18
Adil E, Adam H, Basher O (2012) Hydrochemistry of groundwater at Omdurman area Khatoum State Sudan. Int J Civ Struct Eng 2(4) 1055 P
Adorn AD (1985) Work book on limnology. Pratibha Pub., Bangalore
Ahmed IN (2010) The impact of Tanjero Stream on the soil, ground water along the stream course and Derbendikhan Reservoir, Sulaimani-Iraq, Ph.D. Thesis, Universty of Salahaddin, Iraq, 117 P
Ali SS (2007) Geology and hydrogeology of Sharazoor-Piramagrooon basin in Sulaimani area, Northeastern Iraq, Ph.D. thesis, University of Belgrade, 317 P
Al-Sahaf M (1976) Water resources in Iraq. Ministry of Information, Baghdad
Altoviski ME (1962) Handbook of Hydrogeology. Gosgoelitzdat. USSR, Moscow, p 614 P. (in Russian).
Anon (1999) Jammu and Kashmir lakes and waterways Development Authority (LWDA) Srinagar
Anon (2006) The World Bank, Dokan and Derbendikhan Emergency Hydropower. Consultancy Services for Dokan and Derbendikhan Dam Inspections, Inspection report (final), E1537.SMEC. Section A: Complementary Grouting in Dam Main Remedial Works (Phase1), Analysis of Dam Behavior, Review of Previous Reports Recommendations, Coyne at Bellier, 1975
APHA (2005) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 21st edn. American Public Health Association/American Water Works Association/Water Environment Federation, Washington DC
Bachmann A, Abdulhamed R (2009) Summer fish kill in Darbandikhan Reservoir. Nat Iraq 5(1):7
Boyd CE (2000) Water quality an introduction. Kluwer Academic publisher, USA 330 P
Buday T (1980) The Regional Geology of Iraq. Volume.1: Stratigraphy and Paleogeography. S.O.M., Baghdad, 445 P
Buday T, Jassim SZ (1987) The Regional geology of Iraq: Tectonis, Magmatism and metamorphism. In: Kassab II, Abbas MJ (eds) Baghdad, 445 P
Ong Choon (2004) Minerals from drinking-water: bioavailability for various world populations and health implications. WHO, Water Sanitation Health. World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/nutbioavailability/en/.
Dinka MO, Loiskandl W, Ndambuki JM (2015) Hydrochemical characterization of various surface water and groundwater resources available in Matahara areas, Fantalle Woreda of Oromiya region. J Hydrol Reg Stud 3:444–456
Don CM (1995) A grows guide to water quality. University college station, Texas
Drever JI (1997) The geochemistry of natural water, surface and groundwater environments. 3rd edition, Prentice Hall, USA, 436P. 2nd edition. Prentice Hall Inc, USA, 600 P
Falconer R (2003) Water the most precious resource. Cardiff Univ Mag 3:14–15
Gautam SK, Maharana C, Detc S (2015) Evaluation of groundwater quality in the Chotanagpur plateau region of the Subarnarekha river basin, Jharkhand State, India[J]. Sustain Water Qual Ecol 6:57–74
Gibbs RJ (1970) Mechanisms controlling world water chemistry. Science 170:1088–1090
Guest E (1966) Flora of Iraq, Vol 1. Ministry of Agri- culture, Baghdad
IQS, Iraqi Standard (2009) Iraqi Standard of Drinking Water (417), 2nd modification
Ivanov VV, Barvanov LN, Plotnikova GN (1968) The main genetic type of the earth's crust mineral water and their distribution in USSR. International Geological Congress of 23rd Sessions, Czechoslovakia 12, 33 P
Kabata-pendias A, Mukherjee AB (2007) Trace Elements from Soil to Human. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg 550 P.
Karim K, Sulaiman SH, Othman S, Khanaq PA (2016) Surface analysis and critical review of the Darbandikhan (Khanaqin) fault, Kurdistan Region, Northeast Iraq. Published In: Kurdistan Acadimician Journal 12(1): 61-75
Kaul V (1977) Limnological survey in Kashmir lakes with reference to trophic status and conservation. Int J Ecol Environ Sci 3:29–44
Kaul V, Handoo JK, Rains R (1981) Physico-chemical characteristics of Nilnag, a high altitude forest lake in Kashmir. Proc Indian Nati Sci Aced 8 46(4):528–541
Kazi TG, Arain MB, Ketc JM (2009) Assessment of water quality of polluted lake using multivariate statistical techniques: a case study[J]. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 72(2):301–309
Lehner B, Doll P (2004) Development and validation of a global database of lakes, reservoirs and wetlands. J Hydrol 296(1-4):1–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.03.028
Li P, Qian H (2018) Water resources research to support a sustainable China. Int J Water Resour Dev 34(3):327–336. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2018.1452723
Li S, Li J, Zhang Q (2011) Water quality assessment in the rivers along the water conveyance system of the middle route of the South to North water transfer project (China) using multivariate statistical techniques and receptor modeling [J]. J Hazard Mater 195:306–317
Li P, Wu J, Qian H (2013a) Assessment of groundwater quality for irrigation purposes and identification of hydrogeochemical evolution mechanisms in Pengyang County, China. Environ Earth Sci 69(7):2211–2225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-012-2049-5
Li P, Qian H, Wu J, Zhang Y, Zhang H (2013b) Major ion chemistry of shallow groundwater in the Dongsheng Coalfield, Ordos Basin, China. Mine Water Environ 32(3):195–206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10230-013-0234-8
Li P, Zhang Y, Yang N, Jing L, Yu P (2016a) Major ion chemistry and quality assessment of groundwater in and around a mountainous tourist town of China. Expos Health 8(2):239–252. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-016-0198-6
Li P, Wu J, Qian H, Zhang Y, Yang N, Jing L, Yu P (2016b) Hydrogeochemical characterization of groundwater in and around a wastewater irrigated forest in the southeastern edge of the Tengger Desert, Northwest China. Expos Health 8(3):331–348. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-016-0193-y
Li P, Tian R, Liu R (2018a) Solute geochemistry and multivariate analysis of water quality in the Guohua phosphorite mine, Guizhou Province, China. Expos Health. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-018-0277-y
Li P, He X, Li Y, Xiang G (2018b) Occurrence and health implication of fluoride in groundwater of loess aquifers in the Chinese Loess Plateau: a case study of Tongchuan, northwest China. Expos Health. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-018-0278-x
Manju MN, Resmi P, Gireesh KTR, Ratheesh KCS, Rahul R, Joseph MM, Chandramohanakumar N (2012) Assessment of water quality parameters in mangrove ecosystems along Kerala Coast: a statistical approach India. Int J Environ Res 6(4):893902
Miller GT (1979) Living in the environment, 15th edn. Wadsworth publishing company
Mustafa OM (2006) Impact of Sewage Waste water on the Environment of Tanjero River and its basin with Sulaimani City/NE-Iraq, M.Sc. Thesies, in University of Sulaimani-College of Science/ Dep. of Geology, 142 P
Piper AM (1944) A graphic procedure in the geochemical interpretation of water analyses. Trans Am Geophys Union 25:914–923
Rasheed RO (2008) Evaluation of heavy metals and polyaromatic hydrocarbons in water, fish, and sediments within Derbendikhan reservoir, Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Sulaimani, Sulaimani, Iraq., 138 P
Reza R, Singh G (2010) Heavy metal contamination and its indexing approach for river water. Int J Environ Sci Technol 7(4):785–792
Rylander R, Maurice A (2004) Mineral water intake reduces blood pressure among subjects with low urinary magnesium and calcium levels. BMC Public Health http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471- 2458/4/56
Schoeller H (1967) Qualitative evaluation of groundwater resources (In methods and techniques of Groundwater Investigation and Development). Water Resour Ser UNESCO Paris 33:44–52
Schoenleber JR (2005) Field sampling procedure manual. Department of Environmental Protection, New Jersey 574 P
Sissakian VK (2000) Geological Map of Iraq, scale 1:1000000, 3rd edn. GEOSURV, Baghdad
Szczerbowski JA, Bartel R, Ciepielewski W (2001) Hydrological characteristics of Dokan and Der- bendikhan Dam and lakes of Tharthar, Habbaniya and Razzazah. Pol Fish 9:7–18 Berliner Geowiss. Abh. (A), Berline, 98-97
Tiri A, Boudoukha A (2010) Hydrochemical analysis and assessment of surface water quality in Koudiat Medouar Reservoir, Algeria. Eur J Sci Res 41(2):273–285
Todd DK (1980) Groundwater hydrology. (2.). John Wiley and Sons, New York 533P
Todd DK (2007) Groundwater hydrology second edition. Jhon Wiley and Sons, 3rd Reprint, Inc. India
Toma JJ (2013) Limnological study of Dokan, Derbendikhan and Duhok lakes, Kurdistan region of Iraq. University of Salahaddin, Hawler, Iraq; Open. J Ecol 3(1):23–29
Turgeon AJ (2000) Irrigation water quality. College of Agricultural Sciences, the Pennsylvania State University, USA
UNESCO (2007) Water portal newsletter no. 161, Water related diseases. Available at: http://www.unesco .org/water/news/ newsletter/161.shtml. UNESCO
United Nation Environmental Protection Agency (UNEP) (1980) Storm Drain Outfalls and Solid Waste Landfills. UNEP, Geneva 56 P
US Salinity Laboratory (1954) Diagnoses and Improvement of Saline and Alkali Soils. Agriculture Handbook No. 60. USDA
Vanitha G, Shunmugavelu M (2012) Hydrochemistry and environmental status of Vaigai River Water in Tamil Nadu, India. Int J Eng Res Appl (IJERA) 2(5):1942–1946
Water Quality and Health Council (2003) Drinking Water Chlorination: A Review of Disinfection Practices and Issue. Chlorine Chemistry Council and Canadian Chlorine Coordinating Committee
World Health Organization (WHO) (2006) Guidelines for drinking-water quality. 3rd edition, Recommendations, Geneva, 1, 595P
World Health Organization (WHO) (2008) Guidelines for drinking-water quality. 3rd edition, Recommendations, Geneva, 1, 668 P
Wu J, Li P, Qian H, Duan Z, Zhang X (2014) Using correlation and multivariate statistical analysis to identify hydrogeochemical processes affecting the major ion chemistry of waters: case study in Laoheba phosphorite mine in Sichuan, China. Arab J Geosci 7(10):3973–3982. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-013-1057-4
Wu J, Wang L, Wang S, Tian R, Xue C, Feng W, Li Y (2017) Spatiotemporal variation of groundwater quality in an arid area experiencing long-term paper wastewater irrigation, northwest China. Environ Earth Sci 76(13):460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-017-6787-2
Wynn E, Krieg MA, Aeschlimann JM, Burckhardt P (2008) Alkaline mineral water lowers bone resorption even in calcium sufficiency: alkaline mineral water and bone metabolism." Bone. Elsevier’. http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(08)00781-3/abstract
Zutshi DP, Khan MA (1980) High altitude limnology of the Himalayan system. Hydrobiol 75:103–122
Zutshi DP, Vass KK (1978) Limological studies on Dal lake. Indian J Ecol 51:90–97
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank Dr. Hikmat Saffi Mustafa for their help during field work and grateful to Dr. Yawooz Abdullah Kettanah for supporting this research.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Editorial handling: Maurizio Barbieri
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Rasul, A.K. Hydrochemistry and quality assessment of Derbendikhan Reservoir, Kurdistan Region, Northeastern Iraq. Arab J Geosci 12, 312 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-019-4438-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-019-4438-5