Abstract
Textural deterioration in frozen vegetables is a result of softening after freeze-thawing and is a critical issue to address. In the present study, field experiments were conducted on broccoli using six cultivars of three sizes (i.e., different maturities) in two seasons (spring and winter) to evaluate the relationship between the level of tissue softening caused by the freezing process and composition of pectin, which is a main component of the cell wall. The mechanical properties after freeze-thawing depended more on the growing season than on the cultivar or maturity, i.e., the maximum stress after freeze-thawing of spring broccoli was higher than that of winter broccoli. Between the winter broccoli, the samples harvested at lower temperatures showed more pronounced softening after thawing. For all broccolis, the temperature during harvest was strongly correlated with the maximum compressive stress of frozen broccoli (R = 0.867). Broccoli harvested in winter had a higher ratio of galacturonic acid in water-soluble pectin than that harvested in spring, indicating weakened cell wall adhesion. However, the absence of a substantial correlation between the pectin content and mechanical properties of broccoli, suggests that other factors such as cold-responsive materials are also involved in the tissue softening of frozen broccoli.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The datasets generated during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Abbreviations
- AIS:
-
Alcohol-insoluble solid
- GalA:
-
Galacturonic acid
- WSP:
-
Water-soluble pectin
- HXSP:
-
Hexametaphosphate-soluble pectin
- HSP:
-
Hydrochloric acid-soluble pectin.
References
Ando, Y., Hagiwara, S., Nabetani, H., Okunishi, T., & Okadome, H. (2019). Impact of ice crystal development on electrical impedance characteristics and mechanical property of green asparagus stems. Journal of Food Engineering, 256, 46–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2019.03.019
Barrett, D. M., Garcia, E. L., Russell, G. F., Ramirez, E., & Shirazi, A. (2000). Blanch time and cultivar effects on quality of frozen and stored corn and broccoli. Journal of Food Science, 65(3), 534–540. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2000.tb16043.x
Billy, L., Mehinagic, E., Royer, G., Renard, C. M., Arvisenet, G., Prost, C., & Jourjon, F. (2008). Relationship between texture and pectin composition of two apple cultivars during storage. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 47(3), 315–324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2007.07.011
Buggenhout, S. V., Messagie, I., Van Loey, A., & Hendrickx, M. (2005). Influence of low-temperature blanching combined with high-pressure shift freezing on the texture of frozen carrots. Journal of Food Science, 70(4), S304–S308. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2005.tb07207.x
Chang, C. Y., Tsai, Y. R., & Chang, W. H. (1993). Models for the interactions between pectin molecules and other cell-wall constituents in vegetable tissues. Food Chemistry, 48(2), 145–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/0308-8146(93)90049-L
Chassagne-Berces, S., Poirier, C., Devaux, M. F., Fonseca, F., Lahaye, M., Pigorini, G., Girault, C., Marin, M., & Guillon, F. (2009). Changes in texture, cellular structure and cell wall composition in apple tissue as a result of freezing. Food Research International, 42(7), 788–797. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2009.03.001
Delgado, A. E., Zheng, L., & Sun, D. W. (2009). Influence of ultrasound on freezing rate of immersion-frozen apples. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 2, 263–270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-008-0111-9
Fernández, P. P., Préstamo, G., Otero, L., & Sanz, P. D. (2006). Assessment of cell damage in high-pressure-shift frozen broccoli: Comparison with market samples. European Food Research and Technology, 224, 101–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-006-0294-0
Fuchigami, M. (1988). Effects of harvest time and position of the segments of Japanese radish roots on softening during cooking, pectic composition, and dietary fibers. Journal of Home Economics of Japan, 39(12), 1241–1247. https://doi.org/10.11428/jhej1987.39.1241
Gall, H. L., Philippe, F., Domon, J. M., Gillet, F., Pelloux, J., & Rayon, C. (2015). Cell wall metabolism in response to abiotic stress. Plants., 4(1), 112–166. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants4010112
Hothorn, T., Bretz, F., & Westfall, P. (2008). Simultaneous inference in general parametric models. Biometrical Journal: Journal of Mathematical Methods in Biosciences, 50(3), 346–363. https://doi.org/10.1002/bimj.200810425
Imaizumi, T., Szymańska-Chargot, M., Pieczywek, P. M., Chylińska, M., Kozioł, A., Ganczarenko, D., Tanaka, F., Uchino, T., & Zdunek, A. (2017). Evaluation of pectin nanostructure by atomic force microscopy in blanched carrot. LWT- Food Science and Technology, 84, 658–667. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2017.06.038
James, C., Purnell, G., & James, S. J. (2014). A critical review of dehydrofreezing of fruits and vegetables. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 7, 1219–1234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-014-1293-y
James, C., Purnell, G., & James, S. J. (2015). A review of novel and innovative food freezing technologies. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 8, 1616–1634. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-015-1542-8
Japan Frozen Food Association, 2022. Statistics of frozen food in Japan. Retrieved 22 May 2023, from https://www.reishokukyo.or.jp/statistic/statics-eng/
Jha, P. K., Xanthakis, E., Chevallier, S., Jury, V., & Le-Bail, A. (2019). Assessment of freeze damage in fruits and vegetables. Food Research International, 121, 479–496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2018.12.002
Johansen, T. J., Mølmann, J. A., Bengtsson, G. B., Schreiner, M., Velasco, P., Hykkerud, A. L., Cartea, E., Lea, P., Skaret, J., & Seljåsen, R. (2017). Temperature and light conditions at different latitudes affect sensory quality of broccoli florets (Brassica oleracea L. var. italica). Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 97(11), 3500–3508. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.8196
Jones, R. B., Faragher, J. D., & Winkler, S. (2006). A review of the influence of postharvest treatments on quality and glucosinolate content in broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) heads. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 41(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2006.03.003
Kurokawa, M., Kasai, T., Sugino, A., Okada, Y., & Kobayashi, R. (2022). Investigation of the key factors that affect drip loss in Japanese strawberry cultivars as a result of freezing and thawing. International Journal of Refrigeration, 134, 189–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2021.11.004
Lee, Y., & Watanabe, T. (2022). Bio-electrochemical impedance analysis of frozen Japanese pear tissues: And the relationships among the physical properties, total polyphenol content, and oxidase activity. LWT--Food Science and Technology, 153, 112499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.112499
McComb, E. A., & McCready, R. M. (1952). Colorimetric determination of pectic substances. Analytical Chemistry, 24(10), 1630–1632. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac60070a036
Mølmann, J. A., Steindal, A. L., Bengtsson, G. B., Seljåsen, R., Lea, P., Skaret, J., & Johansen, T. J. (2015). Effects of temperature and photoperiod on sensory quality and contents of glucosinolates, flavonols and vitamin C in broccoli florets. Food Chemistry, 172, 47–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.09.015
Neri, L., Faieta, M., Di Mattia, C., Sacchetti, G., Mastrocola, D., & Pittia, P. (2020). Antioxidant activity in frozen plant foods: Effect of cryoprotectants, freezing process and frozen storage. Foods, 9(12), 1886. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9121886
Nishida, N., & Ando, Y. (2023). Improvement of mechanical properties of frozen Japanese radish by combination of low-and high-temperature blanching pretreatment. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-023-03098-x
Oliveira, A., Coelho, M., Alexandre, E. M., Almeida, D. P., & Pintado, M. (2015). Long-term frozen storage and pasteurization effects on strawberry polyphenols content. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 8, 1838–1844. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-015-1539-3
Paciulli, M., Ganino, T., Pellegrini, N., Rinaldi, M., Zaupa, M., Fabbri, A., & Chiavaro, E. (2015). Impact of the industrial freezing process on selected vegetables—Part I. Structure, texture and antioxidant capacity. Food Research International, 74, 329–337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2014.04.019
Rimkeeree, K., & Charoenrein, S. (2014). Effect of cultivar and ripening stage on quality and microstructure of frozen mangoes (Mangifera indica Linn.). International Journal of Food Properties, 17(5), 1093–1108. https://doi.org/10.1080/10942912.2012.698342
Robert, C., Emaga, T. H., Wathelet, B., & Paquot, M. (2008). Effect of variety and harvest date on pectin extracted from chicory roots (Cichorium intybus L.). Food Chemistry, 108(3), 1008–1018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.12.013
Schäfer, J., Stanojlovic, L., Trierweiler, B., & Bunzel, M. (2017). Storage related changes of cell wall based dietary fiber components of broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) stems. Food Research International, 93, 43–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2016.12.025
Sila, D. N., Van Buggenhout, S., Duvetter, T., Fraeye, I., De Roeck, A., Van Loey, A., & Hendrickx, M. (2009). Pectins in processed fruits and vegetables: Part II—Structure–function relationships. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 8(2), 86–104. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-4337.2009.00071.x
Silva, C. L. M., Gonçalves, E. M., & Brandão, T. R. S. (2008). Freezing of fruits and vegetables. In J. A. Evans (Ed.), Frozen Food Science and Technology (pp. 165–183). Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Simandjuntak, V., Barrett, D. M., & Wrolstad, R. E. (1996). Cultivar and frozen storage effects on muskmelon (Cucumis melo) colour, texture and cell wall polysaccharide composition. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 71(3), 291–296. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0010(199607)71:3%3C291::AID-JSFA577%3E3.0.CO;2-0
Soares, A., Carrascosa, C., & Raposo, A. (2017). Influence of different cooking methods on the concentration of glucosinolates and vitamin C in broccoli. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 10, 1387–1411. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-017-1930-3
Stone, M. B., & Young, C. M. (1985). Effects of cultivars, blanching techniques, and cooking methods on quality of frozen green beans as measured by physical and sensory attributes. Journal of Food Quality, 7(4), 255–265. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4557.1985.tb01057.x
Toole, G. A., Parker, M. L., Smith, A. C., & Waldron, K. W. (2000). Mechanical properties of lettuce. Journal of Materials Science, 35, 3553–3559. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1004809428967
Waldron, K. W., Smith, A. C., Parr, A. J., Ng, A., & Parker, M. L. (1997). New approaches to understanding and controlling cell separation in relation to fruit and vegetable texture. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 8(7), 213–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-2244(97)01052-2
Wang, H., Wang, J., Mujumdar, A. S., Jin, X., Liu, Z. L., Zhang, Y., & Xiao, H. W. (2021). Effects of postharvest ripening on physicochemical properties, microstructure, cell wall polysaccharides contents (pectin, hemicellulose, cellulose) and nanostructure of kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa). Food Hydrocolloids, 118, 106808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.106808
Yang, Q., Luo, M., Zhou, Q., Zhou, X., Zhao, Y., Chen, J., & Ji, S. (2022). Insights into profiling of 24-epibrassinolide treatment alleviating the loss of glucosinolates in harvested broccoli. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 15(12), 2697–2711. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-022-02909-x
Zdunek, A., Kozioł, A., Pieczywek, P. M., & Cybulska, J. (2014). Evaluation of the nanostructure of pectin, hemicellulose and cellulose in the cell walls of pears of different texture and firmness. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 7, 3525–3535. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-014-1365-z
Zhu, Z., Chen, Z., Zhou, Q., Sun, D. W., Chen, H., Zhao, Y., Zhou, W., Li, X., & Pan, H. (2018). Freezing efficiency and quality attributes as affected by voids in plant tissues during ultrasound-assisted immersion freezing. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 11, 1615–1626. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-018-2103-8
Funding
This work was financially supported by the NISSUI Corporation, Japan.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Namiko Nishida: Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing – Original Draft. Yasumasa Ando: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – Original Draft, Writing – Review & Editing. Megumu Takahashi: Methodology, Investigation, Resources, Writing – Review & Editing. Manato Ohishi: Methodology, Resources, Writing – Review & Editing. Tomoko Hashimoto: Conceptualization, Writing – Review & Editing. Yuji Takemura: Conceptualization, Writing – Review & Editing. Chotika Viriyarattanasak: Conceptualization, Writing – Review & Editing.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interests.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
ESM 1
(PDF 373 kb)
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Nishida, N., Ando, Y., Takahashi, M. et al. Effects of Size, Cultivar, and Harvest Season on the Tissue Softening in Frozen Broccoli. Food Bioprocess Technol (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-023-03275-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-023-03275-y