Abstract
Root development is critical to successful establishment after seedlings are outplanted on a forest restoration site. There is an array of practices nursery practitioners and foresters use to ensure seedlings develop quality root systems to aid in outplanting success. To this end, a select number of topics are examined on how they effect root system quality and the linkage between these culturing practices (i.e., nursery root culturing practices), good root morphological and physiological quality and successful field establishment. The following discussion first describes why root development is critical for seedlings to avoid planting stress and successfully transition into field establishment. This is followed by reviewing the seasonality of root growth patterns, and how nursery cultural practices that create optimum levels of nutrients and non-structural carbohydrates affect root growth. Bareroot and container-grown stocktypes are discussed in relation to how their ability to grow roots affects seedling establishment. Lastly, nursery practices related to bareroot root culturing and container type selection for container-grown seedlings are examined on how they can affect seedling root form and field establishment. By focussing on these topics, the intent was to gain a renewed perspective on the importance of root system quality to ensure seedling establishment after outplanting on a forest restoration site.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abrams MD (1988) Sources of variation in osmotic potentials with special reference to North American tree species. For Sci 34:1030–1046
Acevedo M, Álvarez C, Cartes E, Dumroese RK, González M (2020) Production and establishment techniques for the restoration of Nothofagus alessandrii, an endangered keystone species in a Mediterranean forest. New For 51:159–174
Acevedo M, Rubilar R, Dumroese RK, Ovalle JF, Sandoval S, Chassin-Trubert R (2021) Nitrogen loading of Eucalyptus globulus seedlings: nutritional dynamics and influence on morphology and root growth potential. New For 52:31–46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-020-09778-2
Adams HD, Barron-Gafford GA, Minor RL, Gardea AA, Bentley LP, Law DJ, Breshears DD, McDowell NG, Huxman TE (2017) Temperature response surfaces for mortality risk of tree species with future drought. Environ Res Lett 12:115014.
Aghai MM, Pinto JR, Davis AS (2014) Container volume and growing density influence western larch (Larix occidentalis Nutt.) seedling development during nursery culture and establishment. New For 45:199–213. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-013-9402-8
Aldrete A, Mexal JG, Phillips R, Vallotton AD (2002) Copper coated polybags improve seedling morphology for two nursery-grown Mexican pine species. For Ecol Manage 163:197–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(01)00579-5
Allen CD, Macalady AK, Chenchouni H, Bachelet D, McDowell N, Vennetier M, Kitzberger T, Rigling A, Breshears DD, Hogg ET, Gonzalez P (2010) A global overview of drought and heat-induced tree mortality reveals emerging climate change risks for forests. For Ecol Manage 259:660–684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2009.09.001
Amponsah IG, Lieffers VJ, Comeau PG, Landhäusser SM (2004) Nitrogen-15 uptake by Pinus contorta seedlings in relation to phenological stage and season. Scand J For Res 19:329–338
Anderegg WR, Kane JM, Anderegg LD (2013) Consequences of widespread tree mortality triggered by drought and temperature stress. Nat Clim Chang 3:30–36
Andersen L (2001) Survival and growth of Fagus sylvatica seedlings root-pruned prior to transplanting under competitive conditions. Scan J For Res 16:318–323. https://doi.org/10.1080/713785155
Andersen L, Bentsen NS (2003) Survival and growth of Abies nordmanniana in forest and field in relation to stock type and root pruning prior to transplanting. Ann For Sci 60:757–762. https://doi.org/10.1051/forest:2003070
Andersen L, Rasmussen HN, Brander PE (2000) Regrowth and dry matter allocation in Quercus robur (L.) seedlings root pruned prior to transplanting. New For 19:205–214. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006610805249
Andivia E, Fernandez M, Vazquez-Pique J (2011) Autumn fertilization of Quercus ilex ssp. ballota (Desf.) Samp. nursery seedlings: effects on morpho-physiology and field performance. Ann For Sci 68:543–553. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13595-011-0048-4
Annapurna D, Rathore TS, Joshi G (2004) Effect of container type and size on the growth and quality of seedlings of Indian sandalwood (Santalum album L.). Aust For 67:82–87
Appleton BL (1989) Evaluation of nursery container designs for minimization or prevention of root circling. J Environ Hort 7:59–61. https://doi.org/10.24266/0738-2898-7.2.59
Armson KA, Sadreika V (1979) Forest tree nursery soil management and related practices. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Toronto
Arnold MA (1996) Mechanical correction and chemical avoidance of circling roots differentially affect post-transplant root regeneration and field establishment of container-grown Shumard oak. J Am Soc Hort Sci 121:258–263
Arnold MA, Struve DK (1989) Growing green ash and red oak in CuCO3 -treated containers increases root regeneration and shoot growth following transplant. J Am Soc Hort Sci 114:402–406
Awang K, De Chavez CG (1993) Effect of root-wrenching and controlled watering on growth, drought resistance and quality of bare-rooted seedlings of Acacia mangium. J Trop For Sci 5:309–321
Baldwin VC, Barney CW (1976) Leaf water potential in planted ponderosa and lodgepole pines. For Sci 22:344–350
Balisky AC, Burton PJ (1997) Planted conifer seedling growth under two soil thermal regimes in high-elevation forest openings in interior British Columbia. New For 14:63–82
Balisky AC, Salonius P, Walli C, Brinkman D (1995) Seedling roots and forest floor: misplaced and neglected aspects of British Columbia’s reforestation effort? For Chron 71:59–65. https://doi.org/10.5558/tfc71059-1
Barajas-Rodriguez JE, Aldrete A, Vargas-Hernandez JJ, Lopez-Upton J (2004) Chemical pruning in the nursery increases root density in young trees of Pinus greggii. Agrociencia 38:545–553
Barden CJ, Bowersox TW (1976) The effect of root pruning treatments on red oak seedling root growth capacity. USDA For Serv Gen Tech Rep NC-132, pp 115–119
Barnett JP, Brissette JC (1986) Producing southern pine seedlings in containers. USDA For Serv Gen Tech Rep SO-59, 71 p. https://doi.org/10.2737/SO-GTR-59
Barnett JP, McGilvray JM (1981) Container planting systems for the South. USDA For Serv Res Pap. SO-167
Bayley AD, Kietzka JW (1997) Stock quality and field performance of Pinus patula seedlings produced under two nursery growing regimes during seven different nursery production periods. New For 13:341–356. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006550728250
Bell TIW (1978) Effect of seedling container restrictions on the development of Pinus caribaea roots. In: Van Eerden E, Kinghorn J (eds) Proceedings of the root form of planted trees symposium. BC Min of For, CA For Serv Joint Rep 8, pp 91–95
Benson AD, Shepherd KR (1977) Effects of nursery practice on Pinus radiata seedling characteristics and field performance: II. Nursery Root Wrenching NZJ For Sci 7:68–76
Benzian B, Brown RM, Freeman SCR (1974) Effect of late-season topdressing of N (and K) applied to conifer transplants in the nursery on their survival and growth on British forest sites. For Int J For Res 47:153–184. https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/47.2.153
Bernier PY (1993) Comparing natural and planted black spruce seedlings. Can J For Res 23:2427–2434. https://doi.org/10.1139/x93-300
Bigras FJ (1996) Conifer bud dormancy and stress resistance: a forestry perspective. In: Lang GE (ed) Plant dormancy. CAB International, Wallingford, pp 171–192
Bigras FJ, Ryyppö A, Lindström A, Stattin E (2001) Cold acclimation and deacclimation of shoots and roots of conifer seedlings. In: Bigras FJ, Colombo SJ (eds) Conifer cold hardiness. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp 57–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-9650-3_3
Binder WD, Fielder P, Scagel R, Krumlik GJ (1990) Temperature and time-related variation of root growth in some conifer tree species. Can J For Res 20:1192–1199. https://doi.org/10.1139/x90-158
Binkley D (1986) Forest nutrition management. Wiley, New York
Boivin JR, Salifu KF, Timmer VR (2004) Late season fertilization of Picea mariana seedlings: intensive loading and outplanting response on greenhouse bioassays. Ann For Sci 61:737–745
Breshears DD, Adams HD, Eamus D, McDowell N, Law DJ, Will RE, Williams AP, Zou CB (2013) The critical amplifying role of increasing atmospheric moisture demand on tree mortality and associated regional die-off. Frontiers Plant Sci 4:266
Brissette JC, Roberts TC (1984) Seedling size and lifting date effects on root growth potential of loblolly pine from two Arkansas nurseries. Tree Plant Notes 35:34–38
Brissette JC, Barnett JP, Landis TD (1991) Container seedlings. In: Duryea ML, Dougherty PM (eds) Forest regeneration manual. Kluwer, Netherlands, pp 117–141. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-3800-0_7
Brix H, van den Driessche R (1974) Mineral nutrition of container-grown tree seedlings. In: Tinus RW, Stein WI, Balmer WE (eds) Proceedings of North American containerized forest tree seedling symposium. Great Plains Agricultural Council, Publ no 68, pp 77–84
Bunting WR, McLeod GR (1984) Conditioning red pine: influence on performance after overwinter frozen storage. Nursery Notes, Ministry of Natural Resources, Ontario, No 99, 10 p
Buraczyk W, Kapuscinska M (2010) Effects of pruning of vertical roots on growth of one-year Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedlings in the first year after transplanting. Fol For Pol Ser A For 52:26–32
Burr KE (1990) The target seedling concept: bud dormancy and cold-hardiness. In: Rose R, Campbell SJ, Landis TD (eds) Target seedling symposium: proceedings of the Western Forest Nursery Associations. USDA For Serv Gen Tech Rep RM-200, pp 79–90
Burdett AN (1977) Low root growth capacity of bare root lodgepole pine associated with the absence of fibrous roots. British Columbia Ministry of Forests, EP 746
Burdett AN (1978) Control of root morphogenesis for improved mechanical stability in container-grown lodgepole pine. Can J For Res 8:483–486. https://doi.org/10.1139/x78-072
Burdett AN (1983) Quality control in the production of forest planting stock. For Chron 59:132–138. https://doi.org/10.5558/tfc59132-3
Burdett AN (1990) Physiological processes in plantation establishment and the development of specifications for forest planting stock. Can J For Res 20:415–442. https://doi.org/10.1139/x90-059
Burdett AN, Martin PAF (1982) Chemical root pruning of coniferous seedlings. HortSci 17:622–624
Burdett AN, Simpson DG (1984) Lifting, grading, packaging and storing. In: Duryea ML, Landis TD (eds) Forest nursery manual: production of bareroot seedlings. Martinus Nijhoff/Dr. W, Junk, The Hague, pp 227–234. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-6110-4_21
Burdett AN, Herring LJ, Thompson CF (1984) Early growth of planted spruce. Can J For Res 14:644–651. https://doi.org/10.1139/x84-116
Burdett AN, Simpson DG, Thompson CF (1983) Root development and plantation establishment success. Plant Soil 71:103–110. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-6833-2_10
Burdett AN, Martin PAF, Coates H, Eremko R (1986) Toppling in British Columbia’s lodgepole pine plantations: significance, cause and prevention. For Chron 62:433–439. https://doi.org/10.5558/tfc62433-5
Burney OT, Jacobs DF (2013) Ungulate herbivory of boreal and temperate forest regeneration in relation to seedling mineral nutrition and secondary metabolites. NewFfor 44:753–768. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-013-9381-9
Buse LJ, Day RJ (1989) Conditioning three boreal conifers by root pruning and wrenching. Tree Plant Notes 40:33–39
Campagna MA, Margolis HA (1989) Influence of short-term atmospheric CO2 enrichment on growth, allocation patterns, and biochemistry of black spruce seedlings at different stages of development. Can J For Res 19:773–782. https://doi.org/10.1139/x89-118
Campbell DB, Jones MD, Kiiskila S, Bulmer C (2003) Two-year field performance of lodgepole pine seedlings: effects of container type, mycorrhizal fungal inoculants, and site preparation. BC J Eco Manage 3:1–11
Carlson LW, Nairn LD (1977) Root deformities in some container-grown jack pine in southeastern Manitoba. For Chron 53:147–149. https://doi.org/10.5558/tfc53147-3
Carlson WC (1986) Root system considerations in the quality of loblolly seedlings. S J Appl For 10:87–92. https://doi.org/10.1093/sjaf/10.2.87
Carlson WC (1991) Lifting, storing, and transporting southern pine seedlings. In: Duryea ML, Dougherty PM (eds) Forest regeneration manual. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands, pp 219–301. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-3800-0_16
Carlson WC, Miller DE (1990) Target seedling root system size, hydraulic conductivity, and water use during seedling establishment. In: Rose R et al (eds) Target seedling symposium: proceedings of the combined meeting of western forest nursery association. USDA For Serv Gen Tech Rep RM-200, pp 79–90
Carlson WC, Preisig CL, Promnitz LC (1980) Comparative root system morphologies of seeded-in-place, bareroot, and container-cultured plug Sitka spruce seedlings after outplanting. Can J For Res 10:250–256. https://doi.org/10.1139/x80-043
Castellano MA (1996) Outplanting performance of mycorrhizal inoculated seedlings. In Concepts in Mycorrhizal Research Springer, Dordrecht, pp 223–301
Cedamon ED, Mangaoang EO, Gregorio N, Pasa AE, Herbohn JL (2005) Nursery management in relation to root deformation, sowing and shading. Ann Trop Res 27:1–11
Chapin FSI, Schulze ED, Mooney HA (1990) The ecology and economics of storage in plants. Annu Rev Ecol Sys 21:423–447. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.es.21.110190.002231
Chapman KA, Colombo SJ (2006) Early root morphology of jack pine seedlings grown in different types of container. Scand J For Res 21:372–379. https://doi.org/10.1080/02827580600981888
Chavasse CGR (1978) The root form and stability of planted trees with special reference to nursery and establishment practice. In: Van Eerden E, Kinghorn J (eds) Proceedings of the root form of planted trees symposium. BC Min of For, CA For Serv Joint Report 8, pp 54–64
Chavasse CGR (1980) Planting stock quality: a review of factors affecting performance. NZ J For Sci 25:144–171
Chirino E, Vilagrosa A, Hernández EI, Matoc A, Vallejoa VR (2008) Effects of deep container on morphofuctional characteristics and root colonization in Quercus suber L. seedlings for reforestation in Mediterranean climate. For Ecol Manage 256:779–785. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2008.05.035
Chomba BM, Guy RD, Weger HG (1993) Carbohydrate reserve accumulation and depletion in Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii Parry): effects of cold storage and pre-storage CO2 enrichment. Tree Physiol 13:351–364. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/13.4.351
Chung HH, Kramer PJ (1975) Absorption of water and 32P through suberized and unsuberized roots of loblolly pine. Can J For Res 5:229–235
Clark JS, Iverson L, Woodall CW, Allen CD, Bell DM, Bragg DC, D’Amato AW, Davis FW, Hersh MH, Ibanez I, Jackson ST (2016) The impacts of increasing drought on forest dynamics, structure, and biodiversity in the United States. Glob Change Biol 22:2329–2352
Cleary BD, Greaves RD, Owsten PW (1978) Seedlings. In: Cleary BD et al (eds) Regenerating Oregon’s forests: a guide for the regeneration forester. OSU Extn Serv, Corvallis, pp 63–97
Close DC (2012) A review of ecophysiologically-based seedling specifications for temperate Australian Eucalypt plantations. New For 43:739–753. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-012-9321-0
Close DC, Beadle CL, Brown PH (2005) The physiological basis of containerised tree seedling ‘transplant shock’: a review. Aust For 68:112–120
Close DC, Paterson S, Corkrey R, McArthur C (2010) Influences of seedling size, container type and mammal browsing on establishment of Eucalyptus globulus in plantation forestry. New For 39:105–115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-009-9158-3
Colombo SJ, Asselstine MF (1989) Root hydraulic conductivity and root growth capacity of black spruce (Picea mariana) seedlings. Tree Physiol 5:73–81
Cortina J, Vilagrosa A, Trubat R (2013) The role of nutrients for improving seedling quality in drylands. New For 44:719–732. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-013-9379-3
Coutts MP (1981) Effects of root or shoot exposure before planting on the water relations, growth, and survival of Sitka spruce. Can J For Res 11:703–709. https://doi.org/10.1139/x81-097
Coutts MP (1989) Factors affecting the direction of growth of tree roots. In: Ann des sciences forestières 46 (Supplement):277s–287s. https://doi.org/10.1051/forest:19890565
Cuesta B, Vega J, Villar-Salvador P, Rey-Benayas JM (2010a) Root growth dynamics of allepo pine (Pinus halipensis Mill.) seedlings in relation to shoot elongation, plant size and tissue nitrogen concentration. Trees 24:899–908. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-010-0459-0
Cuesta B, Vega J, Villar-Salvador P, Puértolas J, Jacobs DF, Rey-Benayas JM (2010b) Why do large, nitrogen rich seedlings better resist stressful transplanting conditions? A physiological analysis in two contrasting Mediterranean forests. For Ecol Manage 20:71–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2010.04.002
Daniels TD, Simpson DG (1990) Seedling production and processing: bareroot. In: Lavender DP, Parish R, Johnson CM, Montgomery G, Vyse A, Willis RA, Winston D (eds) Regenerating British Columbia’s forests. University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver, pp 206–226
Davis KT, Dobrowski SZ, Higuera PE, Holden ZA, Veblen TT, Rother MT, Parks SA, Sala A, Maneta MP (2019) Wildfires and climate change push low-elevation forests across a critical climate threshold for tree regeneration. Proc Nat Acad Sci 116:6193–6198
Davis SD, Jacobs DF (2005) Quantifying root system quality of nursery seedlings and relationship to outplanting performance. New For 30:295–311. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-005-7480-y
Deans JD, Lundberg C, Tabbush PM, Cannall MGR, Sheppard LJ, Murray MB (1990) The influence of desiccation, rough handling and cold storage on the quality and establishment of Sitka spruce planting stock. For Int J For Res 63:129–141. https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/63.2.129
De La Fuente LM, Ovalle JF, Arellano EC, Ginocchio R (2017) Use of alternative containers for promoting deep rooting of native forest species used for dryland restoration: the case of Acacia caven. iFor 10:776–782. https://doi.org/10.3832/ifor2101-010
De La Fuente LM, Ovalle JF, Arellano EC, Ginocchio R (2018) Does woody species with contrasting root architecture require different container size in nursery? Madera y Bosques 24:2421419.https://doi.org/10.21829/myb.2018.2421419
de Souza RE, dos Santos AJ, de Abreu AHM, de Souza ND, Dias AF Jr (2021) Use of quality tools to evaluate forest seedlings production in the nursery stage. Adv For Sci Cuiabá 8:1425–1432
del Campo AD, Navarro RM, Ceacero CJ (2010) Seedling quality and field performance of commercial stocklots of containerized holm oak (Quercus ilex) in Mediterranean Spain: an approach for establishing a quality standard. New for 39:19–37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-009-9152-9
del Campo AD, Segura-Orenga G, Bautista I, Ceacero CJ, González-Sanchis M, Molina AJ, Hermoso J (2021) Assessing reforestation failure at the project scale: The margin for technical improvement under harsh conditions. A case study in a Mediterranean Dryland. Sci Tot Environ 796:148952
Denchev P, Grossnickle SC (2019) Somatic embryogenesis for conifer seedling production. Reforesta 7:109–137. https://doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.7.08.70
DesRochers A, Tremblay F (2009) The effect of root and shoot pruning on early growth of hybrid poplars. For Ecol Manage 258:2062–2067
Devine WD, Harrington CA, Southworth D (2009) Improving root growth and morphology of containerized Oregon white oak seedlings. Tree Plant Notes 53:29–34
Dey DC, Jacobs D, McNabb K, Miller G, Baldwin V, Foster G (2008) Artificial regeneration of major oak (Quercus) species in the Eastern United States—a review of the literature. For Sci 54:77–106
Dharmasena PB (2016) Nursery Management: Handbook for Beginners https://www.academia.edu/40648067/NURSERY_MANAGEMENT_Handbook_for_Beginners
Dierauf TD, Chandler LA, Hixson DL (1992) Stripping of lateral roots from loblolly pine seedlings during lifting—effect on field performance. VA Department of Forest Occupation Report 105
Dietze MC, Sala A, Carbone MS, Czimczik CI, Mantooth JA, Richardson AD, Vargas R (2014) Nonstructural carbon in woody plants. Ann Rev Plant Biol 65:667–687. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-arplant-050213-040054
Dini-Papanastasi O, Kostopoulou P, Radoglou K (2012) Effects of seed origin, growing medium and mini-plug density on early growth and quality of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia [L.]) seedlings. J for Sci 58:8–20
Dixon RK, Marx DH (1987) Mycorrhizae. Cell and tissue culture in forestry. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 336–350
Dominguez-Lerena S, Sierra NH, Manzano IC, Bueno LO, Rubira JP, Mexal JG (2006) Container characteristics influence Pinus pinea seedling development in the nursery and field. For Ecol Manage 221:63–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2005.08.031
Dong H, Burdett AN (1986) Chemical root pruning of Chinese pine seedlings raised in cupric sulfide impregnated paper containers. New For 1:67–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00028122
Draper D, Binder W, Fahlman R, Spittlehouse D (1985) Post-planting ecophysiology of interior spruce. In: Interior Spruce Seedling Performance. Northern Silviculture Committee, Min For, Res Branch, Victoria, BC, 18 p
Dumroese KR (2000) Changes in interior Douglas-fir root development in containers after copper and auxin treatments. W J Appl for 15:213–216. https://doi.org/10.1093/wjaf/15.4.213
Dumroese RK (2003) Hardening fertilization and nutrient loading of conifer seedlings. In: Riley LE, Dumroese RK, Landis TD (tech coords) National proc: forest and conservation nursery associations— 2002. USDA For Serv Gen Tech Rep RMRS-P-28, pp 31–36
Dumroese RK, Wenny DL (1997) An assessment of ponderosa pine seedlings grown in copper-coated polybags. Tree Plant Notes 48:60–64
Dumroese RK, Sung S-JS, Pinto JR, Ross-Davis Scott DA (2013) Morphology, gas exchange, and chlorophyll content of longleaf pine seedlings in response to rooting volume, copper root pruning, and nitrogen supply in a container nursery. New for 44:881–897. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-013-9377-5
Dumroese RK, Landis TD, Pinto JR, Haase DL, Wilkinson KW, Davis AS (2016) Meeting forest restoration challenges: Using the target plant concept. Reforesta 1:37–52. https://doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.1.03.3
Dunn GM, Huth JR, Lewty MJ (1997) Coating nursery containers with copper carbonate improves root morphology of five native Australian tree species used in agroforestry systems. Agrofor Sys 37:143–155. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005863707277
Duryea ML (1984) Nursery cultural practices: impacts on seedling quality. In: Duryea ML, Landis TD (eds) Forest nursery manual: production of bareroot seedlings. Martinus Nijhoff/Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague, pp 143–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-6110-4_15
Duryea ML, Landis TD (eds) (1984) Forest nursery manual: production of bareroot seedlings. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague / Boston / Lancaster, Martinus Nijhoff / Dr. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-6110-4
Duryea ML, Lavender DP (1982) Water relations, growth, and survival of root-wrenched Douglas-fir seedlings. Can J for Res 12:545–555. https://doi.org/10.1139/x82-085
Duryea ML, McClain KM (1984) Altering seedling physiology to improve reforestation success. In: Duryea ML, Brown GH (eds) Seedling Physiology and Reforestation Success: Proceedings of the Physiology Working Group Technical Session. Martinus Nijhoff / Dr W Junk Publishers, Boston, pp 77–114 . https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-6137-1_5
Eissenstat DM, Yanai RD (2002) Root life span, efficiency, and turnover. Plant Roots Hidden Half 3:221–238
Erkan N, Aydin AC (2017) Long term survival and growth performance of selected seedling types in cedar (Cedrus libani) afforestation in Turkey. J Environ Biol 38:1391–1396. https://doi.org/10.22438/jeb/38/6/MRN-424
Etter HM, Carlson LW (1973) Sugars, relative water content, and growth after planting of dormant lodgepole pine seedlings. Can J Plant Sci 53:395–399. https://doi.org/10.4141/cjps73-076
Everett KT, Hawkins BJ, Kiiskila S (2007) Growth and nutrient dynamics of Douglas-fir seedlings raised with exponential or conventional fertilization and planted with or without fertilizer. Can J for Res 37:2552–2562. https://doi.org/10.1139/X07-108
Feret PP, Kreh RE, Mulligan C (1985) Effects of air drying on survival, height, and root growth potential of loblolly pine seedlings. South J Appl for 9:125–128. https://doi.org/10.1093/sjaf/9.2.125
Fernández M, Tejero JR, Pérez I, Soria F, Ruiz F, López G (2007) Effect of copper coating nursery containers on plant growth and root morphology of Eucalyptus globulus Labill. cuttings and seedlings. Silva Lusitana 15:215–227
Fløistad IS, Kohmann K (2004) Influence of nutrient supply on spring frost hardiness and time of bud break in Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) seedlings. New for 27:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025085403026
Folk RS, Grossnickle SC, Major JE, Arnott JT (1994) Influence of nursery culture on western red cedar. II. Freezing tolerance of fall-planted seedlings and morphological development of fall- and spring-planted seedlings. New for 8:231–247. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00025370
Fuchigami LH, Weiser CJ, Kobayashi K, Timmis R, Gusta LV (1982) A degree growth stage (°GS) model and cold acclimation in temperate woody plants. In: Li PH, Sakai A (eds) Plant cold hardiness and freezing stress. Academic Press, NY, pp 93–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-447602-8.50012-X
Girouard RM (1995) Root form and stability of outplanted trees: results of a 1989 survey. Arboricult J 19:121–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/03071375.1995.9747054
Gould PJ, Harrington CA (2009) Root morphology and growth of bare-root seedlings of Oregon white oak. Tree Plant Notes 52:22–28
Gregorio NO, Harrison S, Herbohn J (2008) Enhancing tree seedling supply to smallholders in Leyte Province, Philippines: an evaluation of the production system of government nursery sector and support to smallholder tree farmers. Small-Scale for 7:245–261. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11842-008-9053-3
Grossnickle SC (1988) Planting stress of bare-root jack pine and white spruce seedlings. I. Factors influencing seedling water uptake. Tree Physiol 4:71–84. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/4.1.71
Grossnickle SC (2000) Ecophysiology of northern spruce species: the performance of planted seedlings. NRC Research Press, Ottawa
Grossnickle SC (2005a) Importance of root growth in overcoming planting stress. New for 30:273–294. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-004-8303-2
Grossnickle SC (2005b) Seedling size and reforestation success. How big is big enough? In: Colombo SJ (compiler) The thin green line: a symposium on the state-of-the-art in reforestation. Ontario Forest Research Institute, OMNR For Res Info Paper 160, pp 138–144
Grossnickle SC (2012) Why seedlings survive: importance of plant attributes. New for 43:711–738. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-012-9336-6
Grossnickle SC (2018) Seedling establishment on a forest restoration site - An ecophysiological perspective. Reforesta 6: 110–139. https://doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.6.09.62
Grossnickle SC, Arnott JT (1992) Gas exchange response of western hemlock seedlings from various dormancy induction treatments to reforestation site environmental conditions. For Ecol Manage 49:177–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-1127(92)90134-U
Grossnickle SC, Folk RS (1993) Stock quality assessment: forecasting survival or performance on a reforestation site. Tree Plant Notes 44:113–121
Grossnickle SC, El-Kassaby YA (2016) Bareroot versus container stocktypes: a performance comparison. New for 47:1–51. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-015-9476-6
Grossnickle SC, MacDonald JE (2018a) Seedling quality: history, application, and plant attributes. For 9:283. https://doi.org/10.3390/f9050283
Grossnickle SG, MacDonald JE (2018b) Why seedlings grow: influence of plant attributes. New for 49:1–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-017-9606-4
Grossnickle SG, MacDonald JE (2021) Fall planting in northern forests as a reforestation option: rewards, risks, and biological considerations. Tree Plant Notes 64:57–69
Grossnickle SC, Major JE (1994a) Interior spruce seedlings compared to emblings produced from somatic embryogenesis. II. Stock quality assessment prior to field planting. Can J for Res 24:1385–1396. https://doi.org/10.1139/x94-179
Grossnickle SC, Major JE (1994b) Interior spruce seedlings compared to emblings produced from somatic embryogenesis. III. Physiological response and morphological development on a reforestation site. Can J for Res 24:1397–1407. https://doi.org/10.1139/x94-180
Grossnickle SC, Reid CPP (1983) Ectomycorrhizae formation and root development patterns of conifer seedlings on a high-elevation mine site. Can J for Res 13:1145–1158. https://doi.org/10.1139/x83-153
Grossnickle SC, Reid CPP (1984) Water relations of Engelmann spruce on a high elevation mine site: An example of how reclamation techniques can alter micro-climate and edaphic conditions. Reclam Reveg Res 3:199–221
Grossnickle SC, Russell JH (1990) Water movement in yellow-cedar seedlings and rooted cuttings: comparison of whole plant and root system pressurization methods. Tree Physiol 6:57–68
Grossnickle SC, South DB (2014) Fall acclimation and the lift/store pathway: effect on reforestation. Open for Sci J 7:1–20. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874398601407010001
Grossnickle SC, Major JE, Arnott JT (1991a) Influence of dormancy induction treatments on western hemlock seedlings. 2) Physiological and morphological response during the first growing season on a reforestation site. Can J for Res 21:175–185. https://doi.org/10.1139/x91-021
Grossnickle SC, Kiiskila SB, Haase DL (2020) Seedling ecophysiology: five questions to explore in the nursery for optimizing subsequent field success. Tree Plant Notes 62:112–127
Grossnickle SC, Major JE, Arnott JT, Tschaplinski TJ (1991b) Influence of dormancy induction treatment on western hemlock seedlings. 1) Seedling development and stock quality assessment. Can J for Res 21:164–174. https://doi.org/10.1139/x91-020
Gruschow GF (1959) Observations on root systems of planted loblolly pine. J for 57:894–896
Haase DL (2011) Seedling root targets. In: Riley LE, Haase DL, Pinto JR (tech coords) National proc: forest and conservation nursery associations—2010. USDA For Serv Gen Tech Rep RMRS-P 65, pp 80–82
Haase DL, Bouzza K, Emerton L, Friday JB, Lieberg B, Aldrete A (2021) The high cost of the low-cost polybag system: a review of nursery seedling production systems. Land 10:826. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10080826
Hahn PF, Hutchison S (1978) Root form of planted trees and their performance. In: Van Eerden E, Kinghorn J (eds) Proceedings of the root form of planted trees symposium. BC Min of For, CA For Serv Joint Rep 8, pp 235–240
Hahn PF (1984) Plug + 1 seedling production. In: Duryea ML, Landis TD (eds) Forest nursery manual: production of bareroot seedlings. Martinus Nijhoff/Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague, pp 165–181. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-6110-4_15
Halter MR, Chanway CP (1993) Growth and root morphology of planted and naturally-regenerated Douglas-fir and lodgepole pine. Ann for Sci 60:71–77. https://doi.org/10.1051/forest:19930105
Halter MR, Chanway CP, Harper GJ (1993) Growth reduction and root deformation of containerized lodgepole pine saplings 11 years after planting. For Ecol Manage 56:131–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-1127(93)90108-Y
Hammer MF, Ray KF, Miller AE (1986) An evaluation of root-wrenched and stored loblolly pine seedlings. Proc. International Symposium on Nursery Management Practices for the Southern Pines. Edited by: South DB pp 351–362
Hatchell GE (1987) Nursery cultural practices, seedling morphology, and field performance of longleaf pine. In Proeedings of 4th Biennial Southern Silvicultural Research Conference. USDA For Serv Gen Tech Rep SE-42, pp 61–66
Hatchell GE, Muse HD (1990) Nursery cultural practices and morphological attributes of longleaf pine bare-root stock as indicators of early field performance. USDA For Serv Res. Pap. SE-277. 38 p. https://doi.org/10.2737/SE-RP-277
Häussling M, Jorns CA, Lehmbecker G, Hecht-Buchholz C, Marschner H (1988) Ion and water uptake in relation to root development in Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.). J Plant Physiol 133:486–491
Hawkins BJ (2011) Seedling mineral nutrition, the root of the matter. In: Riley LE, Haase DL, Pinto JR (tech coords) National proc: forest and conservation nursery associations—2010. USDA For Serv Gen Tech Rep RMRS-P-65, pp 87–97
Hawkins BJ, Burgess D, Mitchell AK (2005) Growth and nutrient dynamics of western hemlock with conventional or exponential greenhouse fertilization and planting in different fertility conditions. Can J for Res 35:1002–1016. https://doi.org/10.1139/x05-026
Hay RL, Woods FW (1974a) Root deformation correlated with sapling size for loblolly pine. J for 72:143–145
Hay RL, Woods FW (1974b) Shape of root systems influence survival and growth of loblolly pine seedlings. Tree Plant Notes 25:1–3
Haywood JD, Sung S-JS, Sword Sayer MA (2012) Copper root pruning and container cavity size influence longleaf pine growth through five growing seasons. South J Appl for 36:146–151. https://doi.org/10.5849/sjaf.10-051
Heiskanen J, Lahti M, Luoranen J, Rikala R (2009) Nutrient loading has a transitory effect on the nitrogen status and growth of outplanted Norway spruce seedlings. Silva Fenn 43:249–260. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.210
Hinckley TM, Lassoie JP, Running SW (1978) Temporal and spatial variations in the water status of forest trees. For Sci Monogr No 20
Hipps NA, Higgs KH, Collard LG (1996) Effects of root wrenching on the growth and water relations of Prunus avium and Castanea sativa seedlings in nursery beds and after outplanting. Can J For Res 29(6):696–704
Hipps NA, Higgs KH, Collard LG (1999) Effects of root wrenching on the growth and water relations of Prunus avium and Castanea sativa seedlings in nursery beds and after outplanting. Can J for Res 29:696–704. https://doi.org/10.1139/x99-044
Hobbs SD, Stafford SG, Slagle RL (1987) Undercutting conifer seedlings: effect on morphology and field performance on droughty sites. Can J for Res 17:40–46. https://doi.org/10.1139/x87-008
Hocking D, Mitchell DL (1975) The influences of rooting volume–seedling escapement and substratum density on greenhouse growth of Lodgepole pine, white spruce, and Douglas fir grown in extruded peat cylinders. Can J for Res 5:440–451. https://doi.org/10.1139/x75-061
Hultén H, Jensen KA (1978) Stability and root deformation of pine plants (Pinus silvestis). In: Van Eerden E, Kinghorn J (eds) Proceedings of the root form of planted trees symposium. BC Min of For, CA For Serv Joint Rep 8, pp 145–149
Hunter SC, Maki TE (1980) The effects of root-curling on loblolly pine. South J Appl for 4:45–49. https://doi.org/10.1093/sjaf/4.1.45
Ingestad T, Lund AB (1986) Theory and techniques for steady state mineral nutrition and growth of plants. Scand J for Res 1:439–445. https://doi.org/10.1080/02827588609382436
Ivetić V (2015) Reforestation in Serbia; success or failure? In: Ivetić V, Stanković D (ed) Proceedings: International conference Reforestation Challenges. 03–06 June 2015, Belgrade, Serbia. Reforesta, pp 1–12
Ivetić V, Škorić M (2013) The impact of seeds provenance and nursery provenance method on Austrian pine (Pinus nigra Arn.) seedlings quality. Ann for Res 56:297–306
Ivetić V, Grossnickle SC, Škorić M (2016) Forecasting the field performance of Austrian pine seedlings using morphological attributes. iFor 10:99. https://doi.org/10.3832/ifor1722-009
Jacobs DF, Salifu KF, Davis AS (2009) Drought susceptibility and recovery of transplanted Quercus rubra seedlings in relation to root system morphology. Ann for Sci 66:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1051/forest/2009029
Jacobs DF, Rose R, Haase DL, Alzugaray PO (2004) Fertilization at planting impairs root system development and drought avoidance of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings. Ann for Sci 61:643–651
Jenkinson JL, Nelson JA, Huddleston ME (1993) Improving planting stock quality: The Humboldt experience. USDA For Serv Gen Tech Rep No. PB-94–164076/XAB; FSGTR-PSW-143
Jinks RL, Kerr G (1999) Establishment and early growth of different plant types of Corsican pine (Pinus nigra var. maritima) on four sites in Thetford forest. For 72:293–304. https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/72.4.293
Johnsen KH, Feret PP, Seiler JR (1988a) Root growth potential and shoot activity of northern and southern provenances of 1–0 eastern white pine seedlings grown in a Virginia nursery. Can J for Res 18:610–614. https://doi.org/10.1139/x88-089
Johnsen KH, McConnell SP, Regelbrugge JC, Seiler JR (1988b) Hydraulic conductance of roots present at the time of lifting and newly regenerated roots of 2+ 0 eastern white pine seedlings. Tree Plant Notes 39:5–8
Johnson PS, Novinger SL, Mares SW (1984) Root, shoot, and leaf area growth potentials of northern red oak planting stock. For Sci 30:1017–1026
Jones MD, Kiiskila S, Flanagan A (2002) Field performance of pine stock types: two-year results of a trial on interior lodgepole pine seedlings grown in styroblocks, copperblocks, or airblocks. BC J Ecosys Manage 2(1).
Kainer KA, Duryea ML (1990) Root wrenching and lifting date of slash pine: effects on morphology, survival, and growth. New for 4:207–221. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00118878
Kaushal P, Aussenac G (1989) Transplanting shock in Corsican pine and Cedar of Atlas seedlings: internal water deficits, growth and root regeneration. For Ecol Manage 27:29–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-1127(89)90080-7
Keenan RJ, Kimmins JP (1993) The ecological effects of clear-cutting. Environ Rev 1:121–144
Kim YT, Colombo SJ, Hickie DF, Noland TD (1999) Amino acid, carbohydrate, glutathione, mineral nutrient and water potential changes in non-water-stressed Picea mariana seedlings after transplanting. Scand J for Res 14:416–424. https://doi.org/10.1080/02827589950154122
Kinghorn JM (1974) Principles and concepts in container planting. In: Tinus RW, Stein WI, Balmer WE (ed) Proceedings, North American Containerized Forest Tree Seedling Symposium; 1974 August 26–29; Denver, CO. Publ. 68. Great Plains Agricultural Council, pp 8–18
Kinghorn JM (1978) Minimizing root problems through container design. In: Van Eerden E, Kinghorn J (eds) Proceedings of the root form of planted trees symposium. BC Min of For, CA For Serv Joint Rep 8, pp 311–318
Konecka A, Buraczyk W, Borowik D, Bedkowki M (2021) The transplanting treatment and roots undercutting effect on the growth and morphological features of two-year old Quercus robur L. seedlings. Бiлa Цepквa: БHAУ, 184 c, pp 82–86
Koon KB, O’Dell T (1977) Effects of wrenching on drought avoidance of Douglas-fir seedlings. Tree Plant Notes 28:15–16
Kormanik PP (1988) Frequency distribution of first-order lateral roots in forest tree seedlings: silvicultural implications. In: Miller, James H. (ed) Proceedings of the fifth biennial southern silvicultural research conference, pp 1–3
Korzeniewicz R, Multańska J, Kasprzyk W (2018) The effect of nitrogen fertilization and root undercutting on growth and survival of beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in cultivation. Acta Sci Pol Silv 17(3). https://doi.org/10.17306/J.AFW.2018.3.2018.3.18
Kostopoulou P, Radoglou K, Dini-Papanastasi O, Adamidou C (2011) Effect of mini-plug container depth on root and shoot growth of four forest tree species during early developmental stages. Turkish J Ag For 35:379–390
Kostopoulou P, Radoglou K, Dini-Papanastasi O, Spyroglou G (2010) Enhancing planting stock quality of Italian cypress (Cupressus sempervirens L.) by pre-cultivation in mini-plugs. Ecological Eng 36:912–919
Kozlowski TT (1992) Carbohydrate sources and sinks in woody plants. Bot Rev 58:107–222. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02858600
Kozlowski TT, Davies WJ (1975) Control of water balance in transplanted trees. Arboriculture 1:1–10
Kozlowski TT, Kramer PJ, Pallardy SG (1991) The physiological ecology of woody plants. Academic Press, New York. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-424160-2.50005-7
Kramer PJ, Kozlowski TT (1979) Physiology of woody plants. Academic Press, New York, p 826
Kramer PJ, Rose RR (1986) Physiological characteristics of loblolly pine seedlings in relation to field performance. In: Proceedings of international symposium on nursery management southern pines, pp 416–440
Krasowski MJ (2003) Root system modifications by nursery culture reflect on post-planting growth and development of coniferous seedlings. For Chron 79:882–891. https://doi.org/10.5558/tfc79882-5
Krasowski MJ, Letchford T, Caputa A, Bergerud WA, Ott PK (1996) The susceptibility of white spruce seedlings to overwinter injury and their post-injury field responses. New for 12:261–278
Khurram S, Burney OT, Morrissey RC, Jacobs DF (2017) Bottles to trees: plastic beverage bottles as an alternative nursery growing container for reforestation in developing countries. PLoS ONE 12(5):e0177904. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0177904
Körner C (2003) Carbon limitation in trees. J Ecol 91:4–17. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2745.2003.00742.x
Kul R, Ekinci M, Turan M, Ors S, Yildirim E (2020) How abiotic stress conditions affects plant roots. In Plant Roots. Intech Open. . https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95286
Landhausser SM, Pinno BD, Lieffers VJ, Chow PS (2012) Partitioning of carbon allocation to reserves or growth determines future performance of aspen seedlings. For Ecol Manage 275:43–51
Landis TD (1985) Mineral nutrition as an index of seedling quality. In: Duryea ML (ed) Evaluating seedling quality: principles, procedures, and predictive ability of major tests. Oregon State University, Forest Research Laboratory, Corvallis, pp 29–48
Landis TD (1990) Chapter 1. Containers: types and functions. In: Landis TD, Tinus R W, McDonald SE, Barnett JP (eds) The container tree nursery manual, Volume 2. Agric. Handbook No. 674, USDA For Serv Agric. Handb. 674, pp 1–39
Landis TD (2007) Miniplug transplants: producing large plants quickly. In: Riley, LE; Dumroese, RK; Landis TD (eds) National proceedings: forest and conservation nursery associations-2006. Proceedings of USDA For Serv RMRS-P-50, pp 46–53
Landis TD (2008) Root culturing in bareroot nurseries. For Nurs Notes 28:9–15
Landis TD (2012) Managing surplus or holdover nursery stock. USDA for Serv for Nurs Notes 30:10–12
Landis TD, Morgan N (2009) Growing media alternatives for forest and native plant nurseries. In: Dumroese, RK, Riley LE (eds) tech. coords. 2009. In: National Proceedings: Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations—2008. Proceedings of Fort Collins, CO: USDA For Serv RMRS-P-58, pp 26–31
Landis TD, Dumroese RK, Haase DL (2010) The container tree nursery manual. 7: Seedling processing, storage, and outplanting. USDA For Serv Agric. Handb. 674, 200 p
Landis TD, Tinus RW, Barnett JP (1999) The container tree nursery manual. 6: Seedling propagation. USDA For Serv Agric. Handb. 674, 167 p
Landis TD, Tinus RW, McDonald SE, Barnett JP (1989) The container tree nursery manual. 4: Seedling nutrition and irrigation. USDA For Serv Agric. Handb. 674, 87 p
Landis TD, Tinus RW, McDonald SE, Barnett JP (1990) The container tree nursery manual. 2: Containers and growing media. USDA For Serv Agric. Handb. 674, 88 p
Landis TD, Tinus RW, McDonald SE, Barnett JP (1992) Atmospheric environment. 3: The container tree nursery manual. USDA For Serv Agric. Handb. 674, 145 p
Landis TD, Tinus RW, McDonald SE, Barnett JP (1995) Nursery planning, development and management. 1: The container tree nursery manual. USDA For Serv Agric. Handb. 674, 188 p
Lantz CW (ed) (1985) Southern pine nursery handbook. USDA For Serv Cooperative Forestry, Southern Region
Lavender DP (1985) Bud dormancy. In: Duryea ML (ed) Evaluating seedling quality: principles, procedures, and predictive ability of major tests. Oregon State University, Forest Research Laboratory, Corvallis, pp 7–15
Lima AE de, Guimarães RJ, Cunha SHB, Castro1 EM, Carvalho AM, Faria MML (2021) Seedling production of Coffea arabica from different cultivars in a modified hydroponic system and nursery using different containers. Ciência e Agrotecnologia 45:e017821
Lindgren O, Örlander G (1978) A study on root development and stability of 6 to 7-year-old container plants. In: Van Eerden E, Kinghorn J (eds) Proceedings of the root form of planted trees symposium. BC Min of For, CA For Serv Joint Rep 8, pp 142–144
Lindström A, Rune G (1999) Root deformation in plantations of container-grown Scots pine trees: effects of root growth, tree stability and stem straightness. Plant Soil 217:29–37. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1004662127182
Liu J, Bloomberg M, Li G, Liu Y (2016) Effects of copper root pruning and radicle pruning on first-season field growth and nutrient status of Chinese cork oak seedlings. New for 47:715–729. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-016-9540-x
Löf M, Dey DC, Navarro RM, Jacobs DF (2012) Mechanical site preparation for forest restoration. New for 43:825–848. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-012-9332-x
Long JN (1978) Root system form and its relationship to growth in young planted conifers. In: Van Eerden E, Kinghorn JM (eds) Proceedings, root form of planted trees symposium. BC Ministry of Forest/ Canadian For Serv, Victoria, BC, Jt rep no. 8, pp 222–234
Lopez-Iglesias B, Villar R, Poorter L (2014) Functional traits predict drought performance and distribution of Mediterranean woody species. Acta Oecol 56:10–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actao.2014.01.003
Luo N, Grossnickle SC, Li G (2021) The effect of nursery drought preconditioning on summer plantation performance of Pinus tabuliformis: high winter mortality mediated by tradeoff between seedling carbohydrate and field growth. New For (in press)
Luoranen J, Rikala R (2011) Nutrient loading of Norway spruce seedlings hastens bud burst and enhances root growth after outplanting. Silva Fenn 45:319–329 . https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.105
Luoranen J, Saksa T, Lappi J (2018) Seedling, planting site and weather factors affecting the success of autumn plantings in Norway spruce and Scots pine seedlings. For Ecol Manage 419:79–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2018.03.040
Lyr H, Hoffmann G (1967) Growth rates and growth periodicity of tree roots. Int Rev for Res 2:181–236
Major JE, Grossnickle SC, Folk RS, Arnott JT (1994) Influence of nursery culture on western red cedar. I. Measurement of seedling attributes before fall and spring planting. New for 8:211–229. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00025369
Malik V, Timmer VR (1996) Growth, nutrient dynamics, and interspecific competition of nutrient-loaded black spruce seedlings on a boreal mixedwood site. Can J for Res 26:1651–1659. https://doi.org/10.1139/x26-186
Malik V, Timmer VR (1998) Biomass partitioning and nitrogen retranslocation in black spruce seedlings on competitive mixedwood sites: a bioassay study. Can J for Res 28:206–215. https://doi.org/10.1139/x97-207
Marchioretto LDR, De Rossi A, Conte ED (2020) Chemical root pruning improves quality and nutrient uptake of Cape Gooseberry (Physalis peruviana) seedlings. Sci Hort 261, pp108948
Margolis HA, Brand DG (1990) An ecophysiological basis for understanding plantation establishment. Can J for Res 20:375–390. https://doi.org/10.1139/x90-056
Mariotti B, Maltoni A, Jacobs DF, Tani A (2015a) Container effects on growth and biomass allocation in Quercus robur and Juglans regia seedlings. Scand J for Res 30:401–415. https://doi.org/10.1080/02827581.2015.1023352
Mariotti B, Maltoni A, Chiarabaglio PM, Giorcelli A, Jacobs DF, Tognetti R, Tani A (2015b) Can the use of large, alternative nursery containers aid in field establishment of Juglans regia and Quercus robur seedlings? New for 46:773–794. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-015-9505-5
Marshall JD (1985) Carbohydrate status as a measure of seedling quality. In: Duryea ML (ed) Evaluating seeding quality: principles, procedures, and predictive abilities of major tests. Oregon State University, Forest Research Laboratory, Corvallis, pp 49–58
Marx DH, Hatchell GE (1986) Root stripping of ectomycorrhizae decreases field performance of loblolly and longleaf pine seedlings. South J Appl for 10:173–179
Marx DH, Ruehle JL, Kenney DS, Cordell CE, Riffle JW, Molina RJ, Pawuk WH, Navratil S, Tinus RW, Goodwin OC (1982) Commercial vegetative inoculum of Pisolithus tinctorius and inoculation techniques for development of ectomycorrhizae on container-grown tree seedlings. For Sci 28:373–400
Mattsson A (1997) Predicting field performance using seedling quality assessment. New for 13:227–252. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006590409595
Mattsson A, Radoglou K, Kostopoulou P, Bellarosa R, Simeone MC, Schirone B (2010) Use of innovative technology for the production of high-quality forest regeneration materials. Scand J for Res 25:3–9
May JT (1985) Seedling growth and development. In: Lantz CW (ed) Southern Pine Nursery Handbook. USDA For Serv Coop For, Southern Region, pp 13–17
McDonald SE, Tinus RW, Reid CPP (1984a) Modification of ponderosa pine root systems in containers. J Environ Hort 2:1–5 . https://doi.org/10.24266/0738-2898-2.1.1
McDonald SE, Tinus RW, Reid CPP, Grossnickle SC (1984b) Effect of CuCO3 container wall treatments and mycorrhizae fungi inoculation of growing medium on pine seedling growth and root development. J Environ Hort 2:5–8 . https://doi.org/10.24266/0738-2898-2.1.5
McGuire MA, Williams HM (1998) Effects of stock type and fall fertilization on survival of longleaf pine seedlings planted in lignite mine spoil. In: Waldrop TA (ed) Proceedings of the ninth biennial southern silvicultural research conference. USDA For Serv Gen Tech Rep SRS-20, pp 329–332
McKay HM (1994) Frost hardiness and cold storage tolerance of the root system of Picea sitchensis, Pseudotsuga menziessii, Larix laempferi and Pinus sylvestris bare-root seedlings. Scand J for Res 9:203–213. https://doi.org/10.1080/02827589409382832
McKay HM (1997) A review of the effects of stresses between lifting and planting on nursery stock quality and performance. New for 13:369–399. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006563130976
McKay HM, Jinks RL, McEvoy C (1999) The effect of desiccation and rough handling on the survival and early growth of ash, beech, birch and oak seedlings. Ann Forest Sci 56:391–402. https://doi.org/10.1051/forest:19990504
McNabb KL (1985) The relationship of carbohydrate reserves to the quality of bare-root Pinus elliottii var. elliottii (Engelm.) seedlings produced in a northern Florida nursery. Ph.D. dissertation 147 Gainesville, FL: University of Florida.
McNabb K (2019) (ed) A nursery guide for the production of bareroot hardwood seedlings. USDA For Serv AG Handbook 733
Mead DJ (2013) Sustainable management of Pinus radiata plantations. FAO Forestry Paper No. 170. Rome, FAO
Menes P, McDonough T (1994) Root system modification in the nursery: terminology of cultural practices. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. Nursery Note 129, 5 p
Menzies MI, Holden DG, Klomp BK (2001) Recent trends in nursery practice in New Zealand. New for 22:3–17. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012027013173
Mexal JG (1997) Forest nursery activities in Mexico. In Landis TD, South DB (tech coord) National Proceedings: Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations-1996. USDA For Serv Gen Tech Rep. PNWGTR-389, pp 228–232
Mexal JG, Burton S (1978) Root development of planted loblolly pine seedlings. In: Van Eerden E, Kinghorn J (eds) Proceedings of the root form of planted trees symposium. BC Min of For, CA For Serv Joint Rep 8, pp 85–90
Mexal JG, Landis TD (1990) Target seedling concepts: height and diameter. In: Rose R, Campbell SJ, Landis TD (eds) Target seedling symposium: proceedings: combined meeting of the Western forest nursery associations. USDA For Serv Gen Tech Rep RM-GTR-200, pp 17–36
Mexal JG, South DB (1991) Bareroot seedling culture. In: Duryea ML, Dougherty PM (eds) Forest regeneration manual. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp 89–115 . https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-3800-0_6
Miller PC (1983) Comparison of water balance characteristics of plant species in “natural” versus modified ecosystems. In: Mooney HA, Godron M (eds) Disturbance and ecosystems. Components of response. Springer, Berlinpp pp 188–212. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-69137-9_13
Mohammed GH, McLeod GR, Menes PA, Timmer VR (2001) Bareroot stock production. In: Wagner RG, Colombo SJ (eds) Regenerating the Canadian forest: principles and practice for Ontario. Markham, Fitzhenry & Whiteside, pp 265–280
Montagnoli A, Chiatante D, Dimitrova A, Terzaghi M, Pinto JR, Dumroese KR (2021) Early pine root anatomy and primary and lateral root formation are affected by container size: implications in dry-summer climates. Reforesta 12:20–34. https://doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.12.04.96
Morrissey RC, Jacobs DF, Davis AS, Rathfon RA (2010) Survival and competitiveness of Quercus rubra regeneration associated with planting stocktype and harvest opening intensity. New for 40:273–287. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-010-9199-7
Mortensen LM (1987) CO2 enrichment in greenhouses. Crop Responses Sci Hort 33:1–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4238(87)90028-8
Mucha J, Jagodziński AM, Bułaj B, Łakomy P, Talaśka AM, Oleksyn J, Zadworny M (2018) Functional response of Quercus robur L. to taproot pruning: a 5-year case study. Ann for Sci 75:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13595-018-0708-8
Mullin RE (1966) Root pruning of nursery stock. For Chron 42:256–264. https://doi.org/10.5558/tfc42256-3
Muñoz-Rengifo J, Chirino E, Cerdán V, Martínez J, Fosado O, Vilagrosa A (2020) Using field and nursery treatments to establish Quercus suber seedlings in Mediterranean degraded shrubland. iFor 13:114–123 . https://doi.org/10.3832/ifor3095-013
Munson AD, Bernier PY (1993) Comparing natural and planted black spruce seedlings. II. Nutrient uptake and efficiency of use. Can J for Res 23:2435–2442. https://doi.org/10.1139/x93-301
Nambiar EK (1980) Root configuration and root regeneration in Pinus radiata seedlings. NZJ for Sci 10:249–263
Nambiar EK (1984) Significance of first-order lateral roots on the growth of young radiata pine under environmental stress. Austr for Res 14:187–199
Nelson WR (1989) A review of the role of root pruning for container forest seedlings. S African for J 151:90–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/00382167.1989.9630511
Nelson WR (1996) Container types and containerised stock for New Zealand afforestation. NZ J for Sci 26:184–190
Nelson WR (1999) Root pruning can influence first order lateral root development of containerised plants. In Combined Proceedings - Int Plant Prop Soc 49:96–102
Nielsen AT (2010) A comparison of root architecture and tree stability in bare root- and Jiffy-trees (Picea abies) eight meters tall. Copenhagen University, study no. SBK08008, 82 p
Norby RJ, O’Neill EG, Hood WG, Luxmoore RJ (1987) Carbon allocation, root exudation and mycorrhizal colonization of Pinus echinata seedlings grown under CO2 enrichment. Tree Physiol 3:203–210. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/3.3.203
Odlum K, Scarratt J, Timmer A, Duckett S, Ross-Slomke P (2001) Container stock production. In: Wagner RG, Colombo SJ (eds) Regenerating the Canadian forest: principles and practice for Ontario. Markham, Fitzhenry & Whiteside, pp 281–306
Oliet JA, Tejada M, Salifu KF, Collazos A, Jacobs DF (2009) Performance and nutrient dynamics of holm oak (Quercus ilex L.) seedlings in relation to nursery nutrient loading and post-transplant fertility. Eur J for Res 128:253–263
Oliet JA, Salazar JM, Villar R, Robredo E (2011) Fall fertilization of holm oak affects N and P dynamics, root growth potential, and post-planting phenology and growth. Ann for Sci 68:647–656. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13595-011-0060-8
Oliet JA, Artero F, Cuadros S, Puértolas J, Luna L, Grau JM (2012) Deep planting with shelters improves performance of different stocktype sizes under arid Mediterranean conditions. New for 43:925–939. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-012-9345-5
Oliet JA, Puértolas J, Planelles R, Jacobs DF (2013) Nutrient loading of forest tree seedlings to promote stress resistance and field performance: a Mediterranean perspective. New for 44:649–669. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-013-9382-8
Ortega U, Majada J, Mena-Petite A, Sanchez-Zabala J, Rodriguez-Iturrizar N, Txarterina K, Azpitarte J, Duñabeitia M (2006) Field performance of Pinus radiata D. Don produced in nursery with different types of containers. New for 31:97–112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-004-7364-6
Padilla FM, Pugnaire FI (2007) Rooting depth and soil moisture control Mediterranean woody seedling survival during drought. Func Ecol 21:489–495. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2435.2007.01267.x
Pardos M, Pardos JA, Montero G (2001) Growth responses of chemically root-pruned cork oak seedlings in the nursery. J Environ Hortic 19:69–72
Pemán GJ, Voltas VJ, Gil PE (2006) Morphological and functional variability in the root system of Quercus ilex L. subject to confinement: consequences for afforestation. Ann for Sci 63:425–430. https://doi.org/10.1051/forest:2006022
Pendl FT, D’Anjou BN (1991) Survival and growth of four amabilis fir stock types on Vancouver island. For Chron 67:147–154. https://doi.org/10.5558/tfc67147-2
Pernot C, Thiffault N, DesRochers A (2019) Root system origin and structure influence planting shock of black spruce seedlings in boreal microsites. For Ecol Manage 433:594–605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2018.11.043
Persson P (1978) Some possible methods of influencing the root development of containerized tree seedlings. In: Van Eerden E, Kinghorn J (eds) Proceedings of the root form of planted trees symposium. BC Min of For, CA For Serv Joint Rep 8, pp 295–300
Pikkarainen L, Luoranen J, Kilpeläinen A, Oijala T, Peltola H (2020) Comparison of planting success in one-year-old spring, summer and autumn plantings of Norway spruce and Scots pine under boreal conditions. Silva Fennica 54 (1) article id 10243, 12 p. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10243
Pinto JR, Marshall JD, Dumroese RK, Davis AS, Cobos DR (2011) Establishment and growth of container seedlings for reforestation: a function of stocktype and edaphic conditions. For Ecol Manage 261:1876–1884. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2011.02.010
Pinto JR, Marshall JD, Dumroese RK, Davis AS, Cobos DR (2012) Photosynthetic response, carbon isotopic composition, survival, and growth of three stock types under water stress enhanced by vegetative competition. Can J Forest Res 42:333–344. https://doi.org/10.1139/x11-189
Pinto JR, Marshall JD, Dumroese RK, Davis AS, Cobos DR (2016) Seedling establishment and physiological responses to temporal and spatial soil moisture changes. New for 47:223–241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-015-9511-7
Policelli N, Horton TR, Hudon AT, Patterson TR, Bhatnagar JM (2020) Back to roots: the role of ectomycorrhizal fungi in boreal and temperate forest restoration. Front for Glob Change 3:97. https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2020.00097
Poorter H, Jonas C, Bühler J, Dusschoten D, Climent J, Postma JA (2012) Pot size matters: a meta-analysis of the effects of rooting volume on plant growth. Funct Plant Biol 39:839–850. https://doi.org/10.1071/FP12049
Preisig CL, Carlson WC, Promnitz LC (1979) Comparative root system morphologies of seed-in-place, bareroot, and containerized Douglas-fir seedlings after outplanting. Can J for Res 9:399–405. https://doi.org/10.1139/x79-067
Puértolas J, Jacobs DF, Benito LF, Peñuelas JL (2012) Cost-benefit analysis of different container capacities and fertilization regimes in Pinus stock-type production for forest restoration in dry Mediterranean areas. Ecol Eng 44:210–215
Puttonen P (1989) Criteria for using seedling performance potential tests. New for 3:67–87. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00128902
Radoglou K, Kostopoulou P, Raftoyannis Y, Dini-Papanastasi O, Spyroglou G (2011) The physiological and morphological quality of Pinus brutia container seedlings produced from mini-plug transplants. Plant Biosystems 145:216–223
Rakestraw J, Lowerts G (1994) Undercutting in loblolly pine. In: Landis TD, Dumroese RK (tech coord) Proceedings, Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations. 1994, USDA For Serv Gen Tech Rep RM-GTR-257. http://www.fcnanet.org/proceedings/1994/rakestraw.pdf
Regan RP, Landis TD, Green JL (1993) The potential for chemical root pruning in container nurseries. Combined Proc Int Plant Prop Soc 43:208–208
Renninger HJ, Miles CH, Ezell AW (2020) Seasonal physiology and growth of planted oaks with implications for bottomland hardwood restoration. New for 51:191–212. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-019-09730-z
Repáč I, Belko M, Krajmerová D, Paule L (2020) Planting time, stocktype and additive effects on the development of spruce and pine plantations in Western Carpathian Mts. New for 52:1–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-020-09804-3
Reynolds JP, Greene TA, Britt JR (2002) Effect of lifting method, seedling size, and herbaceous weed control on first year growth of loblolly pine seedlings. In: Outcalt KW (ed) Proceedings of the eleventh biennial southern silvicultural research conference. USDA For Serv Gen Tech Rep SRS-48, pp 51–54
Rietveld WJ (1989) Transplanting stress in bareroot conifer seedlings: its development and progression to establishment. North J Appl for 6:99–107. https://doi.org/10.1093/njaf/6.3.99
Rikala R, Heiskanen J, Lahti M (2004) Autumn fertilization in the nursery affects growth of Picea abies container seedlings after transplanting. Scand J Forest Res 19:409–414. https://doi.org/10.1080/02827580410030190
Riley LE, Steinfeld D (2005) Effects of bareroot nursery practices on tree seedling root development: an evolution of cultural practices at. J Herbert Stone Nursery New for 30:107–126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-005-1379-5
Rischbieter NO (1978) Root egress from dibble planted containerized Douglas fir seedlings. In: Van Eerden E, Kinghorn J (eds) Proceedings of the root form of planted trees symposium. BC Min of For, CA For Serv Joint Rep 8, pp 241–252
Ritchie GA (1982) Carbohydrate reserves and root growth potential in Douglas-fir seedlings before and after cold storage. Can J for Res 12:905–912. https://doi.org/10.1139/x82-132
Ritchie GA (1984) Assessing seedling quality. In: Duryea ML, Landis TD (eds) Forest nursery manual: production of bareroot seedlings. Martinus Nijhoff/Dr W Junk Publishers, The Hague, pp 243–266. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-6110-4_23
Ritchie GA, Dunlap JR (1980) Root growth potential: its development and expression in forest tree seedlings. NZ J for Sci 10:218–248
Ritchie GA, Tanaka Y (1990) Root growth potential and the target seedling. In: Rose R., Campbell SJ, Landis TD (eds) Target seedling symposium: proceedings, combined meeting of Western forest nursery associations. USDA For Serv Gen Tech Rep RM-GTR-200, pp 37–51
Ritchie GA, Landis TD, Dumroese RK, Haase DL (2010) Assessing plant quality. In: Landis TD, Dumroese RK, Haase DL (2010) Seedling processing, storage, and outplanting. The container tree nursery manual. USDA For Serv Ag Hand 674, vol 7, pp 17–82
Rogers HH, Runion GB, Krupa SV (1994) Plant responses to atmospheric CO2 enrichment with emphasis on roots and the rhizosphere. Envion Pol 83:155–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/0269-7491(94)90034-5
Román-Dañobeytia F, Huayllani M, Michi A, Ibarra F, Loayza-Muro R, Vázquez T, Rodríguez L, García M (2015) Reforestation with four native tree species after abandoned gold mining in the Peruvian Amazon. Ecol Eng 85:39–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2015.09.075
Romero AE, Ryder J, Fisher JT, Mexal JG (1986) Root system modification of container stock for arid land plantings. For Ecol Manage 16:281–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-1127(86)90028-9
Rook DA (1971) Effect of undercutting and wrenching on growth of Pinus radiata D. Don Seedlings J Appl Ecol 8:477–490. https://doi.org/10.2307/2402884
Rowan SJ (1987) Nursery seedling quality affects growth and survival in outplantings. GA forest research paper 70
Ruehle JL (1985) Lateral-root development and spread of Pisolithus tinctorius ectomycorrhizae on bare-root and container-grown loblolly pine seedlings after planting. For Sci 31:220–225
Ruehle JL, Marx DH, Barnett JP, Pawuk WH (1981) Survival and growth of container-grown and bare-root shortleaf pine seedlings with Pisolithus and Thelephora ectomycorrhizae. South J Appl for 5:20–24. https://doi.org/10.1093/sjaf/5.1.20
Rune G (2003) Slits in container wall improve root structure and stem straightness of outplanted Scots pine seedlings. Silva Fenn 37:333–342. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.493
Ruter JM (1994) Growth responses of four vigorous-rooted tree species in cupric hydroxide-treated containers. HortSci 29:1089–1089
Sakai A, Larcher W (1987) Frost survival of plants. Ecological studies Vol. 62. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-71745-1
Salem BB (1978) Root form of Pinus pinea seedlings grown in paperpot containers. In: Van Eerden E, Kinghorn J (eds) Proceedings of the root form of planted trees symposium. BC Min of For, CA For Serv Joint Rep 8, pp 96–99
Salisu MA, Sulaiman Z, Samad MYA, Kolapo OK (2018) Effect of various types and size of container on growth and root morphology of rubber (Hevea Brasiliensis Mull. Arg.). IJSTR 7:21–27
Sands R (1984) Transplanting stress in radiata pine. Aust for Res 14:67–72
Saul GH (1968) Copper safely controls roots of tubed seedlings. Tree Plant Notes 19:7–9
Scagel RK, Evans RC (1992) Exploratory study of root form of white spruce stocktypes. In: Kooistra CM (ed) Proceedings of the 1992 forestry nursery association of British Columbia meeting, Ministry of Forests, Vernon, BC, pp 133–136
Schuch UK, Pittenger DR, Barker PA (2000). Comparing effects of container treatments on nursery production and field establishment of trees with different root systems. J Environ Hort 18:83–88. https://doi.org/10.24266/0738-2898-18.2.83
Schultz RC, Thompson JR (1990) Nursery practices that improve hardwood seedling root morphology. Tree Plant Notes 41:21–32
Schultz RC, Thompson JR (1996) Effect of density control and undercutting on root morphology of 1+0 bareroot hardwood seedlings: five-year field performance of root-graded stock in the central USA. New for 13:301–314
Schultz RC, Thompson JR (1997) Effect of density control and undercutting on root morphology of 1+0 bareroot hardwood seedlings: five-year field performance of root-graded stock in the central USA. New for 13:301–314. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006594510503
Segaran S, Dojack JC, Rathwell RK (1978a) Assessment of root deformities of jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) planted in southeastern Manitoba. In: Van Eerden E, Kinghorn J (eds) Proceedings of the root form of planted trees symposium. BC Min of For, CA For Serv Joint Rep 8, pp 197–200
Segaran S, Dojak JC, Rathwell RK (1978b) Studies of bareroot and container plantations: 1. assessment of root deformities of jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) planted in southeastern Manitoba. MB Dept. of Ren Res and Trans Serv, Tree Improvement & For Gen, For Manage Sec, Lands & For Div, Rep No. 78–2, 5 p
Seidl R, Thom D, Kautz M, Martin-Benito D, Peltoniemi M, Vacchiano G, Wild J, Ascoli D, Petr M, Honkaniemi J, Lexer MJ (2017) Forest disturbances under climate change. Nat Clim Chang 7:395–402
Seiler JR, Paganelli DJ, Cazell BH (1990) Growth and water potential of j-rooted loblolly pine and eastern white pine seedlings over three growing seasons. New for 4:147–153. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00119007
Sheridan RA, Davis AS (2021) Characterizing the utility of the root-to-shoot ratio in Douglas-fir seedling production. Forests 12:1745. https://doi.org/10.3390/f12121745
Shoulders E (1959) Root pruning boosts longleaf survival. Tree Plant Notes 36:15–19
Shoulders E (1963) Root-pruning southern pines in the nursery (Vol. 5). S For Exp Sta, For Serv, USDA
Sloan JP, Jump LH, Ryker RA (1987) Container-grown ponderosa pine seedlings outperform bareroot seedlings on harsh sites in southern Utah. USDA For Serv Res Pap, INT-384. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.68856
Simpson DG (1991) Growing density and container volume affect nursery and field growth of interior spruce seedlings. North J Appl for 8:160–165. https://doi.org/10.1093/njaf/8.4.160
Simpson DG, Ritchie GA (1997) Does RGP predict field performance? A Debate New for 13:253–277. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006542526433
Smith IE, McCubbin PD (1992) Effect of copper tray treatment on Eucapyptus grandis (Hill ex Maiden) seedling growth. Acta Hort 319:371–376. https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.1992.319.57
Spies T (1997) Forest stand structure, composition, and function. In: Kohm KA, Franklin J (eds) Creating a forestry for the twenty-first century: the science of ecosystem management. Island Press, Covelo, CA, pp 11–30
Spittlehouse DL, Stathers RJ (1990) Seedling microclimate. FRDA Rep. 65. Forestry Canada and British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Victoria, BC.
South DB, Stumpff NJ (1990) Root stripping reduces root growth potential of loblolly pine seedlings. South J Appl for 14:196–199. https://doi.org/10.1093/sjaf/14.4.196
South DB, Harris SW, Barnett JP, Hainds MJ, Gjerstad DH (2005) Effect of container type and seedling size on survival and early height growth of Pinus palustris seedlings in Alabama, USA. For Ecol Manage 204:385–398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2004.09.016
Stanturf JA, Palik BJ, Dumroese RK (2014a) Contemporary forest restoration: a review emphasizing function. For Ecol Manage 331:292–323
Stanturf JA, Palik BJ, Williams MI, Dumroese RK, Madsen P (2014b) Forest Restoration Paradigms. J Sustainable for 33(sup1):S161–S194
Starkey TE (2019) Hardwood seedling growth and development and impact of pruning and environmental stress. In: McNabb K. (ed) A nursery guide for the production of bareroot hardwood seedlings USDA For Serv Ag Handb 733, pp 89–100
Starkey TE, Enebak SA (2013) Nursery lifter operation affects root growth potential of pine seedlings. Tree Plant Notes 56:35–42
Stefansson E (1978) Root quality of pine plantations established with seedlings grown in multipots. In: Van Eerden E, Kinghorn J (eds) Proceedings of the root form of planted trees symposium. BC Min of For, CA For Serv Joint Rep 8, pp 114–118
Stein WI (1974) Improving containerized reforestation systems. In: Tinus RW et al (eds) Proceedings, north American containerized forest tree seedling symposium. Great plains agricultural council publications 68, Lincoln, NB, pp 434–440
Stein WI (1984) Wrenching Douglas-fir seedlings in August: immediate but no lasting effects. USDA for Serv Gen Tech Rep PNW 317. https://doi.org/10.2737/PNW-RP-317
Stein WI, Edwards JL, Tinus RW (1975) Outlook for container-grown seedling use in reforestation. J for 73:337–341
Stimm B, Kindu M, Knoke T (2022) Church forests as sources for forest reproductive material of native species and their possible role as starting points for the restoration of degraded areas in Ethiopia. In: Kindu M, Schneider T, Wassie A, Lemenih M, Teketay D, Knoke T (eds) State of the Art in Ethiopian Church Forests and Restoration Options. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86626-6_12
Stone EC (1955) Poor survival and the physiological condition of planting stock. For Sci 1:89–94
Stone EC, Norberg EA (1978) Container-induced root malformation and its elimination prior to planting. In Proceedings of Symposium on Root Form of Planted Trees. In: Van Eerden E, Kinghorn J (eds) Proceedings of the root form of planted trees symposium. BC Min of For, CA For Serv Joint Rep 8, pp 65–72
Stroupe MC (1998) First-year survival and growth of bareroot and container water and willow oak seedlings grown at different levels of mineral nutrition. Master’s Thesis, Stephen F. Austin State University
Struve DK, Arnold MA, Beeson R, Ruter JM, Witte WT (1994) The copper connection. Am Nurseryman 179(52–54):56–61
Stuewe E (1998) Panel discussion: trends in container types. USDA For Serv Gen Tech Rep. RMRS-P-43, pp 73–81
Sung SJS, Dumroese RK, Pinto JR, Sayer MAS (2019) The persistence of container nursery treatments on the field performance and root system morphology of longleaf pine seedlings. Forests 10(9):807. https://doi.org/10.3390/f10090807
Sutton RF (1967) Influence of root pruning on height increment and root development of outplanted spruce. Can J Bot 45:1671–1682. https://doi.org/10.1139/b67-174
Sutton RF (1969) Form and development of conifer root systems. Commonw. Agric. Bur. Tech. Commun. No. 7. Commonwealth Forestry Bureau, Oxford, England
Sutton RF (1980) Root system morphogenesis. NZ J for Sci 10:264–292
Sutton RF (1982) Plantation establishment with bareroot stock; some critical factors. In Artificial Regeneration of Conifers in the Upper Great Lakes Region. Proceedings of a symposium held at Green Bay, Michigan, pp 304–321
Sutton RF (1993) Mounding site preparation: a review of European and North American experience. New for 7:151–192
Sword Sayer MA, Haywood JD, Sung SJS (2009) Cavity size and copper root pruning affect production and establishment of container-grown longleaf pine seedlings. For Sci 55:377–389
Sword Sayer MA, Sung SJS, Haywood J (2011) Longleaf pine root system development and seedling quality in response to copper root pruning and cavity size. S J Appl for 35:5–11. https://doi.org/10.1093/sjaf/35.1.5
Tanaka Y, Walstad JD, Borrecco JE (1976) The effect of wrenching on morphology and field performance on Douglas fir and loblolly pine seedlings. Can J Forest Res 6:453–458. https://doi.org/10.1139/x76-061
Timmer VR (1997) Exponential nutrient loading: a new fertilization technique to improve seedling performance on competitive sites. New for 13:279–299. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006502830067
Tinus RW (1974) Characteristics of seedlings with high survival potential. In: Tinus RW, Stein WI, Balmer WE (eds) Proceedings of the North American containerized forest tree seedling symposium. Great Plains Ag. Council Publ. No. 68, pp, pp 276–282
Tinus RW (1978a) Root form: what difference does it make? In: Van Eerden E, Kinghorn J (eds) Proceedings of the root form of planted trees symposium. BC Min of For, CA For Serv Joint Rep 8, pp 11–15
Tinus RW (1978b) Root system configuration is important to long tree life. Proc Int Plant Prop Soc 78:58–62
Tinus RW (1982) Environmental control of seedling physiology. In: Scarrett JB, Glerum C, Plexman CA (eds) Proceedings of the Canadian containerized tree seedling symposium. Can. For. Serv. Great Lakes For. Cent. COJFRC Symp. Proc. O-P-10, pp 75–82
Tinus RW, McDonald SE (1979) How to grow tree seedlings in containers in greenhouses. USDA For Ser Gen Tech Rep RM-60
Toumey JW (1916) Seeding and planting. Wiley, New York
Tsakaldimi MN, Ganatsas PP (2006) Effect of chemical root pruning on stem growth, root morphology and field performance of the Mediterranean pine Pinus halepensis Mill. Sci Hort 109:183–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2006.04.007
Tsakaldimi M, Zagas T, Tsitsoni T, Ganatsas P (2005) Root morphology, stem growth and field performance of seedlings of two Mediterranean evergreen oak species raised in different container types. Plant Soil 278:85–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-005-2580-1
Tsakaldimi M, Tsitsoni T, Ganatsas ZT (2009) A comparison of root architecture and shoot morphology between naturally regenerated and container-grown seedlings of Quercus ilex. Plant Soil 324:103–113
Tschaplinski TJ, Blake TJ (1989) Correlation between early root production, carbohydrate metabolism, and subsequent biomass production in hybrid poplar. Can J Bot 67:2168–2174. https://doi.org/10.1139/b89-275
Tschaplinski TJ, Norby RJ, Wullschleger SD (1993) Responses of loblolly pine seedlings to elevated CO2 and fluctuating water supply. Tree Physiol 13:283–296. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/13.3.283
Turner S, Bunn E, Chia K, Lewandrowski W, Shade A, Viler M, Gibson-Roy P, Elliott C (2021) Florabank Guidelines Module 13 – Nursery propagation of tubestock and restoration planting. In: Commander LE (ed) Florabank Guidelines (2nd edn). Florabank Consortium: Australia
Uscola M, Villar-Salvador P, Gross P, Maillard P (2015) Fast growth involves a high use of stored resources for seedling spring shoot growth in Mediterranean evergreen trees. Ann Bot 115:1001–1013. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcv019
Vallejo VR, Smanis A, Chirino E, Fuentes D, Valdecantos A, Vilagrosa A (2012) Perspectives in dryland restoration: approaches for climate change adaptation. New for 43:561–579
van den Driessche R (1982) Early growth and survival of interior spruce stock. British Columbia Ministry of Forests Research. Progress report EP 859.03
van den Driessche R (1983) Growth, survival, and physiology of Douglas-fir seedlings following root wrenching and fertilization. Can J for Res 13:270–278. https://doi.org/10.1139/x83-038
van den Driessche R (1991) Effects of nutrients on stock performance in the forest. In: van den Driessche R (ed) Mineral nutrition of conifer seedlings. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 229–260
van den Driessche R (1992) Changes in drought resistance and root growth capacity of container seedlings in response to nursery drought, nitrogen, and potassium treatments. Can J for Res 22:740–749
Van Eerden E (1978) Roots of planted trees in central British Columbia. In: Van Eerden E, Kinghorn J (eds) Proceedings of the root form of planted trees symposium. BC Min of For, CA For Serv Joint Rep 8, pp 201–207
Van Eerden E (1982) Root form of planted trees. In: Scarrett JB, Glerum C, Plexman CA (eds) Proceedings of the Canadian containerized tree seedling symposium. Can. For. Serv. Great Lakes For. Cent. COJFRC Symp. Proc. O-P-10, pp 401–405
Van Eerden E, Gates JW (1990) Seedling production and processing: containers. In: Lavender DP, Parish R, Johnson CM, Montgomery G, Vyse A, Willis RA, Winston D (eds) Regenerating British Columbia’s forests. University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver, pp 226–234
Van Sambeek JW, Hanover JW, Williams RD (1991) Planting stock type and genotype interactions affect early outplanting performance of black walnut seedlings. In: McCormick LH, Gottschalk KW (eds) Proceedings, 8th central hardwoods forest conference. USDA For Serv Gen Tech Rep NE-148, pp 321–331
Villar-Salvador P, Uscola M, Jacobs DF (2015) The role of stored carbohydrates and nitrogen in the growth and stress tolerance of planted forest trees. New for 46:813–839. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-015-9499-z
Villar-Salvador P, Ocaña L, Peñuelas J, Carrasco I (1999) Effect of water stress conditioning on the water relations, root growth capacity, and the nitrogen and non-structural carbohydrate concentration of Pinus halepensis Mill. (Aleppo pine) seedlings. Ann for Sci 56:459–465. https://doi.org/10.1051/forest:19990602
Villar-Salvador P, Penuelles R, Enriquez E, Penuelas J, Rubira JL (2004) Nursery cultivation regimes, plant functional attributes, and field performance relationship in Mediterranean oak Quercus ilex L. For Ecol Manage 196:257–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2004.02.061
Villar-Salvador P, Puértolas J, Cuesta B, Penuelas JL, Uscola M, Heredia-Guerrero N, Benayas JMR (2012) Increase in size and nitrogen concentration enhances seedling survival in Mediterranean plantations. Insights from an ecophysiological conceptual model of plant survival. New for 43:755–770. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-012-9328-6
Vizoso S, Gerant D, Guehl JM, Joffre R, Chalot M, Gross P, Maillard P (2008) Do elevation of CO2 concentration and nitrogen fertilization alter storage and remobilization of carbon and nitrogen in pedunculate oak saplings? Tree Physiol 28:1729–1739
Vyse A (1981) Growth of young spruce plantations in interior British Columbia. For Chron 57:174–180. https://doi.org/10.5558/tfc57174-4
Wakeley PC (1948) Physiological grades of southern pine nursery stock. In: Proceedings: Soc Am For 1948, pp 311–322
Wakeley PC (1954) Planting the southern pines. USDA For Serv Ag Mono No 18
Wallin E, Gräns D, Stattin E, Verhoef N, Mikusiński G, Lindström A (2019) Evaluating methods for storability assessment and determination of vitality status of container grown Norway spruce transplants after frozen storage. Scand J for Res 34:417–426
Walters GA, Medlicott G (1990) Container hybrid pines survive on a harsh dam site. Tree Plant Notes 41:8–14
Wang J, Yu H, Li G, Zhang F (2016) Growth and nutrient dynamics of transplanted Quercus variabilis seedlings as influenced by pre-hardening and fall fertilization. Silva Fenn 50:1–18 . https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1475
Wang Y, Zhou Z, Jin G, Hong G, Wang H (2007) Growth of Taxus chinensis var. mairei for container seedlings in different media mixtures and for bare-root versus container seedlings in a young stand. J Zhejiang For College 5:27
Warren SL, Blazich FA (1991) Influence of container design on root circling, top growth, and post-transplant root growth of selected landscape species. J Environ Hort 9:141–144 . https://doi.org/10.24266/0738-2898-9.3.141
Waters WE, DeMars CJ Jr, Cobb FW Jr (1991) Analysis of early mortality of Douglas-fir seedlings in postharvest plantings in Northwestern California. For Sci 37:802–826
Watson JB (2020) Early performance comparison of bareroot and containerized loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L) planting stock: does stocktype, genetics, and time of planting play a key role? Master’s Thesis, Mississippi State University
Way DA, Seegobin SD, Sage RF (2007) The effect of carbon and nutrient loading during nursery culture on the growth of black spruce seedlings: a six-year field study. New for 34:307–312. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-007-9053-8
Weicherding PJ, Giblin CP, Gillman JH, Hanson DL, Johnson GR (2007) Mechanical root-disruption practices and their effect on circling roots of pot-bound Tilia cordata Mill. and Salix alba L.Niobe’. Arbor and Urban for 33:43–46
Wells CE, Eissenstat DM (2003) Beyond the roots of young seedlings: the influence of age and order on fine root physiology. J Plant Growth Regul 21:324–334
Wenny DL, Woollen RL (1989) Chemical root pruning improves the root system morphology of containerized seedlings. W J Appl for 4:15–17. https://doi.org/10.1093/wjaf/4.1.15
Wenny DL, Liu Y, Dumroese RK, Osborne HL (1988) First year field growth of chemically root pruned containerized seedlings. New for 2:111–118. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00027762
Whitcomb CE (1984) Plant production in containers. Lacebark Publications, Stillwater OK
Wibeck E (1923) The deformity of pine root systems as caused by bar planting (German into English translation). Meddelanden Fran Statens Skogsforsoksanstale 20:261–303
Wightman KE (1999) Good tree nursery practices: practical guidelines for community nurseries. International Centre for Research in Agroforestry, ISBN 92 9059 131 5
Wilkinson KM, Landis TD, Haase DL, Daley BF, Dumroese RK (2014) Tropical nursery manual: a guide to starting and operating a nursery for native and traditional plants. USDA For Serv Ag Handb 732, 376 p
Williams AP, Allen CD, Macalady AK, Griffin D, Woodhouse CA, Meko DM, Swetnam TW, Rauscher SA, Seager R, Grissino-Mayer HD, Dean JS (2013) Temperature as a potent driver of regional forest drought stress and tree mortality. Nat Clim Chang 3:292–297
Williams HM, South DB, Webb A (1988) Effects of fall irrigation on morphology and root growth potential of loblolly pine seedlings growing in sand. S Afr for J 147:1–5. https://doi.org/10.1080/00382167.1988.9628963
Williams RD (1972) Root fibrosity proves insignificant in survival, growth of black walnut seedlings. Tree Planters’ Notes 23:25–28
Wilson BC, Jacobs DF (2006) Quality assessment of temperate zone deciduous hardwood seedlings. New for 31:417–433. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-005-0878-8
Wilson E, Vitols KC, Park A (2007) Root characteristics and growth potential of container and bare-root seedlings of red oak (Quercus rubra L.) in Ontario. Canada New for 34:163–176. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-007-9046-7
Woods FW (1980) Growth of loblolly pine with roots planted in five configurations. South J Appl for 4:70–73. https://doi.org/10.1093/sjaf/4.2.70
Xydias GK (1982) Factors influencing survival and early stocking trends in plantations of loblolly pine. In: Jones E Jr (ed) Proceedings, second biennial southern silvicultural research conference. USDA For Serv Gen Tech Rep SE-24, pp 101–108
Yamashita N, Okuda S, Suwa R, Lei TT, Tobita H, Utsugi H, Kajimoto T (2016) Impact of leaf removal on initial survival and growth of container-grown and bare-root seedlings of Hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa). For Ecol Manage 370:76–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.03.054
Zadworny M, Jagodziński AM, Łakomy P, Ufnalski K, Oleksyn J (2014) The silent shareholder in deterioration of oak growth: common planting practices affect the long-term response of oaks to periodic drought. For Ecol Manage 318:133–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2014.01.017
Zadworny M, Jagodziński AM, Łakomy P, Mucha J, Oleksyn J, Rodriguez-Calcerrada J, Ufnalski K (2019) Regeneration origin affects radial growth patterns preceding oak decline and death—insights from tree-ring δ13C and δ18O. Agric for Meteorol 278:107685. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2019.107685
Zadworny M, Mucha J, Jagodziński AM, Kościelniak P, Łakomy P, Modrzejewski M, Ufnalski K, Żytkowiak R, Comas LH, Rodríguez-Calcerrada J (2021) Seedling regeneration techniques affect root systems and the response of Quercus robur seedlings to water shortages. For Ecol Manage 479:118552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118552
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Joanne MacDonald (Natural Resources Canada, Canadian For Serv—Atlantic Forestry Centre) for conducting a thorough review of this manuscript during the final stages of development. We also would like to thank Dennis Schmidling and Kirsten Norris for their assistance with graphic illustrations. The participation of Vladan Ivetić in this manuscript project was supported by the Serbian Ministry of Science and Education (451-03-68/2021-14/200169).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Both SCG and VI were involved in the conceptualization of the manuscript content, search for relevant publications and synthesis of this information into the concepts presented here within.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interest
Both authors have no financial or non-financial interests that are directly or indirectly related to the work presented in this paper.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Grossnickle, S.C., Ivetić, V. Root system development and field establishment: effect of seedling quality. New Forests 53, 1021–1067 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-022-09916-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-022-09916-y