Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Why seedlings grow: influence of plant attributes

  • Review
  • Published:
New Forests Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Successful forest restoration requires planting quality seedlings with optimal growth potential. Thus, nurseries need to produce seedlings with plant attributes that favor the best chance of successful establishment once they are field planted. From the mid-twentieth century on, research foresters have critically examined plant attributes that confer improved seedling growth under various restoration site conditions. This review examines the value of commonly measured seedling quality attributes (i.e., height, diameter, root mass, shoot-to-root ratio, drought resistance, freezing tolerance, nutrient status, root growth potential, and root electrolyte leakage) that have been recognized as important in explaining why seedlings with improved attributes have better growth after planting. Seedlings with plant attributes that fall within the appropriate range of values can increase the speed with which they overcome planting stress, initiate growth, and become “coupled” to the forest restoration site, thereby ensuring successful seedling establishment. Although planting high quality seedlings does not guarantee successful seedling establishment, it increases chances for successful establishment and growth.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abrams MD (1988) Sources of variation in osmotic potentials with special reference to North American tree species. For Sci 34:1030–1046

    Google Scholar 

  • Aghai MM, Pinto JR, Davis AS (2014) Container volume and growing density influence western larch (Larix occidentalis Nutt.) seedling development during nursery culture and establishment. New For 45:199–213

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Akpo E, Stomph TJ, Kossou DK, Omore AO, Struik PC (2014) Effects of nursery management practices on morphological quality attributes of tree seedlings at planting: the case of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.). For Ecol Manag 324:28–36

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andersen L, Bentsen NS (2004) Survival and growth of Abies nordmanniana in forest and field in relation to stock type and root pruning prior to transplanting. Ann For Sci 60:757–762

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andivia E, Fernandez M, Vazquez-Pique J (2011) Autumn fertilization of Quercus ilex ssp. ballota (Desf.) Samp. nursery seedlings: effects on morpho-physiology and field performance. Ann For Sci 68:543–553

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andivia E, Marquez-Garcia B, Vazquez-Pique J, Cordoba F, Fernandez M (2012) Autumn fertilization with nitrogen improves nutritional status, cold hardiness and the oxidative stress responses of Holm oak (Quercus ilex ssp. ballota [Desf.] Samp) nursery seedlings. Trees Struct Funct 26:311–320

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Andivia E, Fernandez M, Vazquez- Pique J (2014) Assessing the effect of late-season fertilization on Holm oak plant quality: insights from morphonutritional characterizations and water relations parameters. New For 45:149–163

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aphalo P, Rikala R (2003) Field performance of silver-birch planting-stock grown at different spacing and in containers of different volume. New For 25:93–108

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baldwin VC, Barney CW (1976) Leaf water potential in planted ponderosa and lodgepole pines. For Sci 22:344–350

    Google Scholar 

  • Balk PA, Haase DL, van Wordragen MF (2008) Gene activity test determines cold tolerance in Douglas-fir seedlings. In: Dumroese RK, Riley LE (tech coords) National proc: forest and conservation nursery associations—2007. RMRS-P-57. USDA Forest Service, Sidney, pp 140–148

  • Barker AV (2010) Growth of loblolly pine and white pine after enrichment by nutrient loading. Commun Soil Sci Plan 41:2613–2622

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bayala J, Dianda ZM, Wilson ZJ, Ouédraogo SJ, Sanon ZK (2009) Predicting field performance of five irrigated tree species using seedling quality assessment in Burkina Faso, West Africa. New For 38:309–322

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benzian B, Brown RM, Freeman SCR (1974) Effect of late-season topdressing of N (and K) applied to conifer transplants in the nursery on their survival and growth on British forest sites. Forestry 47:153–184

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bernier PY, Lamhamedi MS, Simpson DG (1995) Shoot:root ratio is of limited use in evaluating the quality of container conifer stock. Tree Planters’ Notes 46:102–106

    Google Scholar 

  • Bigg WL, Schalau JW (1990) Mineral nutrition and the target seedling. In: Rose R, Campbell SJ, Landis TD (eds) Target seedling symposium: proceedings of combined meeting of the Western forest nursery associations. RM-GTR-200. USDA Forest Service, Roseburg, pp 139–160

    Google Scholar 

  • Bigras FJ (1996) Conifer bud dormancy and stress resistance: a forestry perspective. In: Lang GE (ed) Plant dormancy. CAB International, Wallingford, pp 171–192

    Google Scholar 

  • Bigras FJ (1997) Root cold tolerance of black spruce seedlings: viability tests in relation to survival and regrowth. Tree Physiol 17:311–318

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bigras FJ (1998) Field performance of containerized black spruce seedlings with root systems damaged by freezing or pruning. New For 15:1–9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bigras FJ, Calmé S (1994) Viability tests for estimating root cold tolerance of black spruce seedlings. Can J For Res 24:1039–1048

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bigras FJ, Margolis HA (1997) Shoot and root sensitivity of containerized black spruce, white spruce and jack pine seedlings to late fall freezing. New For 13:29–49

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bigras FJ, Ryyppö A, Linderström A, Stattin E (2001) Cold acclimation and deacclimation of shoots and roots of conifer seedlings. In: Bigras FJ, Colombo SJ (eds) Conifer cold hardiness. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp 57–88

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Binder WD, Scagel RK, Krumlik GJ (1988) Root growth potential: facts, myths, value? In: Landis TD (ed) Proceedings of combined meeting of the Western nursery associations, USDA Forest Service, RMRS, General technical report RM-167, pp 111–118

  • Binkley D (1986) Forest nutrition management. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Binotto AF, Lúcio ADC, Lopes SJ (2010) Correlations between growth variables and the Dickson Quality Index in forest seedlings. Cerne Lavras/Brasil 16:457–464

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Birchler TM, Rose R, Haase DL (2001) Fall fertilization with N and K: effects on Douglas-fir seedlings quality and performance. West J Appl For 16:71–79

    Google Scholar 

  • Boivin JR, Salifu KF, Timmer VR (2004) Late season fertilization of Picea mariana seedlings: intensive loading and outplanting response on greenhouse bioassays. Ann For Sci 61:737–745

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brix H, van den Driessche R (1974) Mineral nutrition of container-grown tree seedlings. In: Tinus RW, Stein WI, Balmer WE (eds) Proceedings of North American containerized forest tree seedling symposium. Great Plains Agricultural Council, Publ no 68, pp 77–84

  • Brønnum P (2005) Preplanting indicators of survival and growth of desiccated Abies procera bareroot planting stock. Scand J For Res 20:36–46

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burdett AN (1983) Quality control in the production of forest planting stock. For Chron 59:132–138

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burdett AN (1987) Understanding root growth capacity: theoretical considerations in assessing planting stock quality by means of root growth tests. Can J For Res 17:768–775

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burdett AN (1990) Physiological processes in plantation establishment and the development of specifications for forest planting stock. Can J For Res 20:415–427

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burney OT, Jacobs DF (2013) Ungulate herbivory of boreal and temperate forest regeneration in relation to seedling mineral nutrition and secondary metabolites. New For 44:753–768

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burr KE (1990) The target seedling concept: bud dormancy and cold-hardiness. In: Rose R, Campbell SJ, Landis TD (eds) Target seedling symposium: proceedings of combined meeting of the Western forest nursery associations. RM-GTR-200. USDA Forest Service, Roseburg, pp 79–90

    Google Scholar 

  • Burr KE, Hawkins CDB, L’Hirondelle SJ, Binder WD, George MF, Repo T (2001) Methods for measuring cold hardiness of conifers. In: Bigras F, Colombo S (eds) Conifer cold hardiness. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp 369–401

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Carlson WC, Miller DE (1990) Target seedling root system size, hydraulic conductivity, and water use during seedling establishment. In: Rose R, Campbell SJ, Landis TD (eds) Target seedling symposium: proceedings of combined meeting of the Western forest nursery associations. RM-GTR-200. USDA Forest Service, Roseburg, pp 53–67

    Google Scholar 

  • Chavasse CGR (1980) Planting stock quality: a review of factors affecting performance. NZ J For Sci 25:144–171

    Google Scholar 

  • Chiatante D, Di Iorio A, Scippa GS, Sarnataro M (2002) Improving vigour assessment of pine (Pinus nigra Arnold). Plant Biosyst 136:209–216

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cicek E, Cicek N, Bilir N (2007) Effects of seedbed density on one-year-old Fraxinus angustifolia seedling characteristics and outplanting performance. New For 33:81–91

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark SL, Schlarbaum SE, Kormanik PP (2000) Visual grading and quality of 1-0 northern red oak seedlings. South J Appl For 24:93–97

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark SL, Schlarbaum SE, Schweitzer CJ (2015) Effects of visual grading on northern red oak (Quercus rubra L.) seedlings planted in two shelterwood stands on the Cumberland Plateau of Tennessee, USA. Forests 6:3779–3798

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark SL, Schlarbaum SE, Saxton AM, Hebard FV (2016) Establishment of American chestnuts (Castanea dentata) bred for blight (Cryphonectria parasitica) resistance: influence of breeding and nursery grading. New For 47:243–270

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cleary BD, Greaves RD, Owsten PW (1978) Seedlings. In: Cleary BD, Greaves RD, Hermann RK (eds) Regenerating Oregon’s forests: a guide for the regeneration forester. Oregon State University Extension Service, Corvallis, pp 63–97

    Google Scholar 

  • Close DC (2012) A review of ecophysiologically-based seedling specifications for temperate Australian Eucalypt plantations. New For 43:739–753

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Close DC, Bail I, Hunter S, Beadle CL (2005a) Effects of exponential nutrient-loading on morphological and nitrogen characteristics and on after-planting performance of Eucalyptus globulus seedlings. For Ecol Manag 205:397–403

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Close DC, Beadle CL, Brown PH (2005b) The physiological basis of containerised seedling ‘transplant shock’: a review. Aust For 68:112–120

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Close DC, Bail I, Hunter S, Beadle CL (2006) Defining seedling specifications for Eucalyptus globulus: effects of seedling size and container type on early after-planting performance. Aust For 69:2–8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Colombo SJ (1997) Frost hardening spruce container stock for overwintering in Ontario. New For 13:449–467

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Colombo SJ, Menzies MI, O’Reilly C (2001a) Influence of nursery cultural practices on cold hardiness of coniferous forest tree seedlings. In: Bigras FS, Colombo SJ (eds) Conifer cold hardiness. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp 223–252

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Colombo SJ, Sampson PH, Grossnickle SC, Templeton CWG, McDonough TC, Menes PA, DeYoe D (2001b) Nursery stock quality assessment in Ontario. In: Wagner B, Colombo SJ (eds) Regenerating Ontario’s forests. Fitzhenry and Whiteside Ltd., Markham, pp 307–324

    Google Scholar 

  • Colombo SJ, Glerum C, Webb DP (2003) Daylength, temperature and fertilization effects on desiccation resistance, cold hardiness and root growth potential of Picea mariana seedlings. Ann For Sci 60:307–317

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cortina J, Vilagrosa A, Trubat R (2013) The role of nutrients for improving seedling quality in drylands. New For 44:719–732

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cossitt FM, Rindt CA, Gunning HA (1949) Production of planting stock. In: Stefferud A (ed) Tree. The yearbook of agriculture. USDA, Washington DC, pp 160–169

    Google Scholar 

  • Cuesta B, Vega J, Villar-Salvador P, Rey-Benayas JM (2010a) Root growth dynamics of Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis Mill.) seedlings in relation to shoot elongation, plant size and tissue nitrogen concentration. Trees Struct Funct 24:899–908

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cuesta B, Villar-Salvador P, Puértolas J, Jacobs DF, Rey Benayas JM (2010b) Why do large, nitrogen rich seedlings better resist stressful transplanting conditions? A physiological analysis in two functionally contrasting Mediterranean forest species. For Ecol Manag 260:71–78

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis SD, Jacobs DF (2005) Quantifying root system quality of nursery seedlings and relationship to outplanting performance. New For 30:295–311

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis SD, Ross-Davis AL, Dumroese RK (2011) Nursery culture impacts cold hardiness in longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) seedlings. Restor Ecol 19:717–719

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deans JD, Lundberg C, Tabbush PM, Cannall MGR, Sheppard LJ, Murray MB (1990) The influence of desiccation, rough handling and cold storage on the quality and establishment of Sitka spruce planting stock. Forestry 63:129–141

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • del Campo AD, Navarro RM, Ceacero CJ (2010) Seedling quality and field performance of commercial stocklots of containerized holm oak (Quercus ilex) in Mediterranean Spain: an approach for establishing a quality standard. New For 39:19–37

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deligöz A, Bayar E, Gür M, Genc M (2013) An assessment of the important seedling properties for reforestation in Pinus nigra J. F. Arnold subsp. nigra var. caramanica (Loudon) Rehder from three provenances. In: Proceedings of international Caucasian for symposium, Artvin, pp 13–17

  • Dey DC, Parker WC (1997) Morphological indicators of stock quality and field performance of red oak (Quercus rubra L.) seedling underplanted in a central Ontario shelterwood. New For 14:145–156

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dierauf TA, Garner JW (1996) Effect of initial root collar diameter on survival and growth of yellow poplar seedlings over 17 years. Tree Planters’ Notes 47:30–33

    Google Scholar 

  • Dominguez-Lerena S, Herrero Sierra N, Carrasco Manzano I, Ocana Bueno L, Penuelas Rubira JL, Mexal JG (2006) Container characteristics influence Pinus pinea seedling development in the nursery and field. For Ecol Manag 221:63–71

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dumroese RK (2003) Hardening fertilization and nutrient loading of conifer seedlings. In: Riley LE, Dumroese RK, Landis TD (tech coords) National proc: forest and conservation nursery associations—2002. RMRS-P-28. USDA Forest Service, Gainesville, pp 31–36

  • Dumroese RK, Williams MI, Stanturf JA, St. Clair JB (2015) Considerations for restoring temperate forests of tomorrow: forest restoration, assisted migration, and bioengineering. New For 46:947–964

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duryea ML (1985) Nursery cultural practices: impacts on seedling quality. In: Duryea ML, Landis TD (eds) Forest nursery manual: production of bareroot seedlings. Martinus Nijhoff/Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague, pp 143–164

    Google Scholar 

  • Everett KT, Hawkins BJ, Kiiskila S (2007) Growth and nutrient dynamics of Douglas-fir seedlings raised with exponential or conventional fertilization and planted with or without fertilizer. Can J For Res 37:2552–2562

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fernández M, Marcos C, Tapais R, Federico R, López G (2007) Nursery fertilization affects the frost tolerance and plant quality of Eucalyptus globulus Labill. cuttings. Ann For Sci 64:865–873

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fløistad IS, Kohmann K (2004) Influence of nutrient supply on spring frost hardiness and time of bud break in Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) seedlings. New For 27:1–11

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Folk RS, Grossnickle SC (1997) Determining field performance potential with the use of limiting environmental conditions. New For 13:121–138

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Folk RS, Grossnickle SC, Axelrood P, Trotter D (1999) Seed-lot, nursery, and bud dormancy effects on root electrolyte leakage of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings. Can J For Res 29:1269–1281

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fraysse JY, Crémière L (1998) Nursery factors influencing containerized Pinus pinaster seedlings’ initial growth. Silva Fenn 32:261–270

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuchigami LH, Nee CC (1987) Degree growth stage model and rest-breaking mechanisms in temperate woody perennials. HortScience 22:836–845

    Google Scholar 

  • Garriou D, Girard S, Guehld J, Généré B (2000) Effect of desiccation during cold storage on planting stock quality and field performance in forest species. Ann For Sci 57:101–111

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Généré B, Garriou D (1999) Stock quality and field performance of Douglas-fir seedlings under varying degrees of water stress. Ann For Sci 56:501–510

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Girard S, Clément A, Boulet-Gercourt B, Guehl JM (1997a) Effects of exposure to air on stress in red oak seedlings. Ann Sci For 54:395–401

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Girard S, Clément A, Cochard H, Boulet-Gercourt B, Guehl JM (1997b) Effects of desiccation on post-planting stress in bare-root Corsican pine seedlings. Tree Physiol 17:429–435

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gladstone WT, Ledig FT (1990) Reducing pressure on natural forests through high-yield forestry. For Ecol Manag 35:69–78

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glerum C (1985) Frost hardiness of coniferous seedlings: principles and applications. In: Duryea ML (ed) Evaluating seedling quality: principles, procedures, and predictive ability of major tests. Oregon State University, Forest Research Laboratory, Corvallis, pp 107–123

    Google Scholar 

  • Glerum C (1988) Evaluation of planting stock quality. In: Smith CR, Reffle RJ (eds) Taking stock: the role of nursery practice in forest renewal. NRCan CFS-GLFC. Proceedings of Ont For Res Com Symp, O-P-16, pp 44–49

  • Gray LK, Hamann A (2011) Strategies for reforestation under uncertain future climates: guidelines for Alberta, Canada. PLoS ONE 6(8):e22977. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0022977

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Grossnickle SC (2000) Ecophysiology of northern spruce species: the performance of planted seedlings. NRC Research Press, Ottawa

    Google Scholar 

  • Grossnickle SC (2005a) Importance of root growth in overcoming planting stress. New For 30:273–294

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grossnickle SC (2005b) Seedling size and reforestation success. How big is big enough? In: Colombo SJ (compiler) The thin green line: a symposium on the state-of-the-art in reforestation. Ontario Forest Research Institute, OMNR For Res Info Paper 160, pp 138–144

  • Grossnickle SC (2011) Tissue culture of conifer seedlings—twenty years on: viewed through the lens of seedling quality. In: Riley LE, Haase DL, Pinto JR (tech cords) National proceedings: forest and conservation nursery associations—2010. RMRS-P-65. USDA Forest Service, Portland, pp 139–146

  • Grossnickle SC (2012) Why seedlings survive: importance of plant attributes. New For 43:711–738

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grossnickle SC, El-Kassaby Y (2016) Bareroot versus container stocktypes: a performance comparison. New For 47:1–51

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grossnickle SC, Folk RS (1993) Stock quality assessment: forecasting survival or performance on a reforestation site. Tree Planters’ Notes 44:113–121

    Google Scholar 

  • Grossnickle SC, Folk RS (2005) Stock quality assessment of a somatic interior spruce seedlot. North J Appl For 22:197–206

    Google Scholar 

  • Grossnickle SC, Folk RS (2007) Field performance potential of a somatic interior spruce seedlot. New For 34:51–72

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grossnickle SC, Major JE (1994a) Interior spruce seedlings compared to emblings produced from somatic embryogenesis. II. Stock quality assessment prior to field planting. Can J For Res 24:1385–1396

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grossnickle SC, Major JE (1994b) Interior spruce seedlings compared to emblings produced from somatic embryogenesis. III. Physiological response and morphological development on a reforestation site. Can J For Res 24:1397–1407

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grossnickle S, Pait J (2008) Somatic embryogenesis technology for applying varietal forestry to conifer species. In: Dumroese RK, Riley LE (tech coords) National proc: forest and conservation nursery associations—2007. USDA Forest Service RMRS-P-57, pp 135–139

  • Grossnickle SC, Reid CPP (1984) Water relations of Engelmann spruce seedlings on a high-elevation mine site: an example of how reclamation techniques can alter microclimate and edaphic conditions. Reclam Reveg Res 3:199–221

    Google Scholar 

  • Grossnickle SC, South DB (2014) Fall acclimation and the lift/store pathway: effect on reforestation. Open For Sci J 7:1–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Guarnaschelli AB, Prystupa P, Lemcoff JH (2006) Drought conditioning improves water status, stomatal conductance and survival of Eucalyptus globulus subsp. bicostata seedlings. Ann For Sci 63:941–950

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haase DL (2008) Understanding forest seedling quality: measurements and interpretation. Tree Planters’ Notes 52:24–30

    Google Scholar 

  • Haase DL (2011) Seedling phenology and cold hardiness: moving targets. In: Riley LE, Haase DL, Pinto JR (tech coords) National proc: forest and conservation nursery associations—2010. USDA Forest Service RMRS-P-65, pp 121–127

  • Haase DL, Rose R, Trobaugh J (2006) Field performance of three stock sizes of Douglas-fir container seedlings grown with slow-release fertilizer in the nursery growing medium. New For 31:1–24

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haase DL, Khadduri N, Mason E, Dumroese RK (2016) Relationships among chilling hours, photoperiod, calendar date, cold hardiness, seed source, and storage of Douglas-fir seedlings. Tree Planters’ Notes 59:52–63

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins BJ (2011) Seedling mineral nutrition, the root of the matter. In: Riley LE, Haase DL, Pinto JR (tech coords) National proc: forest and conservation nursery associations—2010. USDA Forest Service RMRS-P-65, pp 87–97

  • Hawkins CDB, Binder WD (1990) State of the art stock quality tests based on seedling physiology. In: Rose R, Campbell SJ, Landis TD (eds) Target seedling symposium: proceedings of combined meeting of the Western forest nursery associations. USDA Forest Service RM-GTR-200, pp 91–122

  • Hawkins BJ, Burgess D, Mitchell AK (2005) Growth and nutrient dynamics of western hemlock with conventional or exponential greenhouse fertilization and planting in different fertility conditions. Can J For Res 35:1002–1016

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heiskanen J, Lahti M, Luoranen J, Rikala R (2009) Nutrient loading has a transitory effect on the nitrogen status and growth of outplanted Norway spruce seedlings. Silva Fenn 43:249–260

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Helenius P, Luoranen J, Rikala R (2005) Effect of preplanting drought on survival, growth and xylem water potential of actively growing Picea abies container seedlings. Scand J For Res 20:103–109

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hennessey TC, Dougherty PM (1984) Characterization of the internal water relations of loblolly pine seedlings in response to nursery cultural treatments: implications for forest regeneration success. In: Duryea ML, Brown GN (eds) Seedling physiology and reforestation success. Martinus Nijhoff/Dr W Junk Publishers, Forestry Series, Dordrecht, pp 225–244

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Heredia-Guerrero N, Oliet JA, Villar-Salvador P, Benito LF, Peñuelas JL (2014) Fertilization regime interacts with fall temperature in the nursery to determine the frost and drought tolerance of the Mediterranean oak Quercus ilex subsp. ballota. For Ecol Manag 331:50–59

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howell KD, Harrington TB (2004) Nursery practices influence seedling morphology, field performance, and cost efficiency of containerized cherrybark oak. South J Appl For 28:152–162

    Google Scholar 

  • Hu Y-L, Hu Y, Zeng D, Tan X, Chang SX (2015) Exponential fertilization and plant competition effects on the growth and N nutrition of trembling aspen and white spruce seedlings. Can J For Res 45:78–86

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Imo M, Timmer VR (2001) Growth and nitrogen retranslocation on nutrient loaded Picea mariana seedlings planted on boreal mixedwood sites. Can J For Res 31:1357–1366

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ingestad T, Lund AB (1986) Theory and techniques for steady state mineral nutrition and growth of plants. Scand J For Res 1:439–445

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Irwin KM, Duryea ML, Stone EL (1998) Fall-applied nitrogen improves performance of 1-0 slash pine nursery seedlings after outplanting. South J Appl For 22:111–116

    Google Scholar 

  • Islam MA, Apostol KG, Jacobs DF, Dumroese RK (2009) Fall fertilization of Pinus resinosa seedlings: nutrient uptake, cold hardiness, and morphological development. Ann For Sci 66:704–713

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ivetić V, Devetaković J, Maksimović Z (2016a) Initial height and diameter are equally related to survival and growth of hardwood seedlings in first year after field planting. Reforesta 2:6–21

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ivetić V, Grossnickle SC, Škorić M (2016b) Forecasting the field performance of Austrian pine seedlings using morphological attributes. iForest. doi:10.3832/ifor1722-009

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson DP, Barnett JP, Dumroese RK, Patterson WB (2007) Container longleaf pine seedling morphology in response to varying rates of nitrogen fertilization in the nursery and subsequent growth after outplanting. In: Riley LE, Dumroese RK, Landis TD (tech coords) National proc: forest and conservation nursery associations—2006. RMRS-P-50. USDA Forest Service, Tyler, pp 114–119

  • Jackson DP, Dumroese KR, Barnett JP (2012) Nursery response of container Pinus palustris seedlings to nitrogen supply and subsequent effects on outplanting performance. For Ecol Manag 265:1–12

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs DF, Salifu KF, Seifert JR (2005) Relative contribution of initial root and shoot morphology in predicting field performance of hardwood seedlings. New For 30:235–251

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jäghagen K, Albrektson A (1996) Induced competition among Scots pine seedlings and its effect on future timber quality. New For 12:163–174

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaramillo A (1980) Review of techniques used to evaluate seedling quality. In: Proceedings of intermountain nurseryman’s association and Western forest nursery associations combined meeting. USDA Forest Service INT-GTR-109, pp 84–95

  • Jinks R, Mason B (1998) Effects of seedling density on the growth of Corsican pine (Pinus nigra var. maritima Melv.), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii Franco) in containers. Ann For Sci 55:407–423

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson JD, Cline ML (1991) Seedling quality of southern pines. In: Duryea ML, Dougherty PM (eds) Forest regeneration manual. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp 143–162

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Joly RJ (1985) Techniques for determining seedling water status and their effectiveness in assessing stress. In: Duryea ML (ed) Evaluating seedling quality: principles, procedures, and predictive ability of major tests. Oregon State University, Forest Research Laboratory, Corvallis, pp 17–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Jonsdottir RJ, Sigurdsson BD, Lindström A (2013) Effects of nutrient loading and fertilization at planting on growth and nutrient status of Lutz spruce (Picea × lutzii) seedlings during the first growing season in Iceland. Scand J For Res 28:631–641

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joosen RV, Lammers M, Balk PA, Brønnum P, Konings MC, Perks M, Stattin E, van Wordragen MF, van der Geest ALH (2006) Correlating gene expression to physiological parameters and environmental conditions during cold acclimation of Pinus sylvestris, identification of molecular markers using cDNA microarrays. Tree Physiol 26:1297–1313

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joustra MK, Brander PE, Aussenac G, Mattsson A, McKay HM, Radoglou K, Kleinschmit J, O’Reilly C, Chiatante D, Almeida MH (2000a) A European approach to assessing the re-growth potential of woody plants: parameters for plant vitality and dormancy of planting stock. EU FAIR programme, FAIR1 CT95-0497, Final report, research station for nursery stock, Boskoop

  • Joustra MK, Kunneman BPAM, Ravesloot MBM (2000b) Water content is often not a good parameter for tree quality. Acta Hortic 517:31–37

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jurásek A, Leugner J, Martincová J (2009) Effect of initial height of seedlings on the growth of planting material of Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) in mountain conditions. J For Sci 55:112–118

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim YT, Colombo SJ, Hickie DF, Noland TD (1999) Amino acid, carbohydrate, glutathione, mineral nutrient and water potential changes in non-water-stressed Picea mariana seedlings after transplanting. Scand J For Res 14:416–424

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kormanik PP, Sung S-JS, Kormanik TL, Zarnoch SJ (1995) Oak regeneration why big is better. In: Landis TD, Cregg B (tech coords) National proceedings: forest and conservation nursery associations—1995. USDA Forest Service PNW-GTR-365, pp 117–123

  • Kormanik PP, Sung S-JS, Zarnoch SJ (1998) Immature loblolly pine growth and biomass accumulation: correlations with seedlings initial first-order lateral roots. South J Appl For 22:117–123

    Google Scholar 

  • Kozlowski TT, Kramer PJ, Pallardy SG (1991) The physiological ecology of woody plants. Academic Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Kramer PJ, Rose RR (1986) Physiological characteristics of loblolly pine seedlings in relation to field performance. In: Proceedings of international symposium on nursery management southern pines, pp 416–440

  • Krasowski MJ, Owens JN (2000) Morphological and physiological attributes of root systems and seedling growth in three different Picea glauca reforestation stock. Can J For Res 30:1669–1681

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • L’Hirondelle SJ, Simpson DG, Binder WD (2006) Overwinter storability of conifer planting stock: operational testing of fall frost hardiness. New For 32:307–321

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • L’Hirondelle SJ, Simpson DG, Binder WD (2007) Chlorophyll fluorescence, root growth potential, and stomatal conductance as estimates of field performance potential in conifer seedlings. New For 34:235–251

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landhäusser SM, Rodriguez-Alvarez J, Marenholtz EM, Lieffers VJ (2012) Effect of stock type characteristics and time of planting on field performance of aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) seedlings on boreal reclamation sites. New For 43:679–693

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landis TD (1985) Mineral nutrition as an index of seedling quality. In: Duryea ML (ed) Evaluating seedling quality: principles, procedures, and predictive ability of major tests. Oregon State University, Forest Research Laboratory, Corvallis, pp 29–48

    Google Scholar 

  • Landis TD (2011) The target plant concept— a history and brief overview. In: Riley, LE, Haase DL, Pinto JR (tech coords) National proceedings: forest and conservation nursery associations—2010. RMRS-P-65. USDA Forest Service, Portland, pp 61–66

  • Landis TD, Skakel SG (1988) Root growth potential as an indicator of outplanting performance: problems and perspectives. In: Landis TD (ed) Proceedings: combined meeting of the Western nursery associations, USDA Forest Service, RMRS, General technical report RM-167, pp 106–110

  • Landis TD, Tinus RW, McDonald SE, Barnett JP (1989) Seedling nutrition and irrigation. The container tree nursery manual, vol 4. USDA Forest Service Agriculture Handbook 674, Washington

  • Landis TD, Dumroese RK, Haase DL (2010) Seedling processing, storage, and outplanting. The container tree nursery manual, vol 7. USDA Forest Service Agriculture Handbook 674, Washington

  • Larsen HS, South DB, Boyer JM (1988) Foliar nitrogen content at lifting correlates with early growth of loblolly pine seedlings from 20 nurseries. South J Appl For 12:181–185

    Google Scholar 

  • Lavender DP (1976) Role of forest tree physiology in producing planting stock and establishing plantations. In: Proceedings: XVI IUFRO World Congress, Oslo, pp 34–45

  • Lavender DP (1985) Bud dormancy. In: Duryea ML (ed) Evaluating seedling quality: principles, procedures, and predictive ability of major tests. Oregon State University, Forest Research Laboratory, Corvallis, pp 7–15

    Google Scholar 

  • Lavender DP (1988) Characterization and manipulation of the physiological quality of planting stock. In: Worrall J, Loo-Dinkins J, Lester D (eds) Proceedings of the 10th North American Forest Biology workshop, physiology and genetics of reforestation. UBC Press, Vancouver, pp 32–57

    Google Scholar 

  • Levy PE, McKay HM (2003) Assessing tree seedling vitality tests using sensitivity analysis of a process-based growth model. For Ecol Manag 183:77–93

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li GL, Liu Y, Zhu Y, Yang J, Sun HY, Jia ZK, Ma LY (2011) Influence of initial age and size on the field performance of Larix olgensis seedlings. New For 42:215–226

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li G, Liu Y, Zhu Y, Li QM, Dumroese RK (2012) Effect of fall-applied nitrogen on growth, nitrogen storage, and frost hardiness of bareroot Larix olgensis seedlings. Silva Fenn 46:345–354

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li G, Wang J, Oliet JA, Jacobs DF (2016) Combined pre-hardening and fall fertilization facilitates N storage and field performance of Pinus tabulaeformis seedlings. iForest 9:483–489

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindström A, Mattsson A (1994) Cultivation of containerized seedlings in Sweden—systems for frost protection and methods to detect root injuries. Acta Hortic 361:429–440

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindström A, Stattin E (1994) Root freezing tolerance and vitality of Norway spruce and Scots pine seedlings; influence of storage duration, storage temperature, and prestorage root freezing. Can J For Res 24:2477–2484

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindström A, Stattin E, Gräns D, Wallin E (2014) Storability measures of Norway spruce and Scots pine seedlings and assessment of poststorage vitality by measuring shoot electrolyte leakage. Scand J For Res 29:717–724

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu Y, Bai SL, Zhu Y, Li GL, Jiang P (2012) Promoting seedling stress resistance through nursery techniques in China. New For 43:639–649

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lopushinsky W (1990) Seedling moisture status. In: Rose R, Campbell SJ, Landis TD (eds) Target seedling symposium: proceedings: combined meeting of the Western forest nursery associations. RM-GTR-200. USDA Forest Service, Roseburg, pp 123–138

    Google Scholar 

  • Luis VC, Puértolas J, Climent J, Peters J (2009) Nursery fertilization enhances survival and physiological status in Canary Island pine (Pinus canariensis) seedlings planted in a semiarid environment. Eur J For Res 128:221–229

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luoranen J, Rikala R (2011) Nutrient loading of Norway spruce seedlings hastens bud burst and enhances root growth after outplanting. Silva Fenn 45:319–329

    Google Scholar 

  • Luoranen J, Rikala R, Smolander H (2003) Root egress and field performance of actively growing Betula pendula container seedlings. Scand J For Res 18:133–144

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luoranen J, Lahti M, Rikala R (2008) Frost hardiness of nutrient-loaded two-year-old Picea abies seedlings in autumn and at the end of freezer storage. New For 35:207–220

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malik V, Timmer VR (1996) Growth, nutrient dynamics, and interspecific competition of nutrient-loaded black spruce seedlings on a boreal mixedwood site. Can J For Res 26:1651–1659

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malik V, Timmer VR (1998) Biomass partitioning and nitrogen retranslocation in black spruce seedlings on competitive mixedwood sites: a bioassay study. Can J For Res 28:206–215

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malmqvist C, Wallertz K, Lindström A (2016) Storability and freezing tolerance of Douglas fir and Norway spruce seedlings grown in mid-Sweden. Scand J For Res. doi:10.1080/02827581.2016.1183704

    Google Scholar 

  • Maltoni A, Mariotti B, Tani A, Jacobs DF (2010) Relation of Fraxinus excelsior seedling morphology to growth and root proliferation during field establishment. Scand J For Res 25(Suppl 8):60–67

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Margolis HA, Brand DG (1990) An ecophysiological basis for understanding plantation establishment. Can J For Res 20:375–390

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mason EG (2001) A model of the juvenile growth and survival of Pinus radiata D. Don: adding the effects of initial seedling diameter and plant handling. New For 22:133–158

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mason EG, South DB, Weizhong Z (1996) Performance of Pinus radiata in relation to seedling grade, weed control, and soil cultivation in the central North Island of New Zealand. NZ J For Sci 26:173–183

    Google Scholar 

  • Mattsson A (1997) Predicting field performance using seedling quality assessment. New For 13:227–252

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McAlister JA, Timmer VR (1998) Nutrient enrichment of white spruce seedlings during nursery culture and initial plantation establishment. Tree Physiol 18:195–202

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCreary DD, Duryea ML (1985) OSU vigor test: principles, procedures, and predictive ability. In: Duryea ML (ed) Evaluating seedling quality: principles, procedures, and predictive ability of major tests. Oregon State University, Forest Research Laboratory, Corvallis, pp 85–92

    Google Scholar 

  • McKay HM (1992) Electrolyte leakage from fine roots of conifer seedlings: a rapid index for plant vitality following cold storage. Can J For Res 22:1371–1377

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKay HM (1993) Tolerance of conifer fine roots to cold storage. Can J For Res 23:337–342

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKay HM (1994) Frost hardiness and cold storage tolerance of the root system of Picea sitchensis, Pseudotsuga menziessii, Larix laempferi and Pinus sylvestris bare-root seedlings. Scand J For Res 9:203–213

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKay HM (1998) Root electrolyte leakage and root growth potential as indicators of spruce and larch establishment. Silva Fenn 32:241–252

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKay HM, Mason WL (1991) Physiological indicators of tolerance to cold storage in Sitka spruce and Douglas-fir seedlings. Can J For Res 21:890–910

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKay HM, Morgan JL (2001) The physiological basis for the establishment of bare-root larch seedlings. For Ecol Manag 142:1–18

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKay HM, White IMS (1997) Fine root electrolyte leakage and moisture content and indices of Sitka spruce and Douglas-fir seedling performance after desiccation. New For 13:139–162

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKay HM, Gardiner BA, Mason WL, Nelson DG, Hollingsworth MK (1993) The gravitational forces generated by dropping plants and the response of Sitka spruce seedlings to dropping. Can J For Res 23:2443–2451

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mena-Petite A, Ortega-Lasuen U, González-Moro M, Lacuesta M, Muňoz-Rueda A (2001) Storage duration and temperature effects on the functional integrity of container and bare-root Pinus radiata D. Don stock-types. Trees Struct Funct 15:289–296

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mexal JG, Landis TD (1990) Target seedling concepts: height and diameter. In: Rose R, Campbell SJ, Landis TD (eds) Target seedling symposium: proceedings: combined meeting of the Western forest nursery associations. RM-GTR-200. USDA Forest Service, Roseburg, pp 17–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Mexal JG, South DB (1991) Bareroot seedling culture. In: Duryea ML, Dougherty PM (eds) Forest regeneration manual. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp 89–115

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Mexal JG, Rangel RC, Negreros-Castillo P, Lezama CP (2002) Nursery production practices affect survival and growth of tropical hardwoods in Quintana Roo, Mexico. For Ecol Manag 168:125–133

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mexal JG, Rangel RAC, Landis TD (2008) Reforestation success in central Mexico: factors determining survival and early growth. Tree Planters’ Notes 53:16–22

    Google Scholar 

  • Millard P, Grelet G-A (2010) Nitrogen storage and remobilization by trees: ecophysiological relevance in a changing world. Tree Physiol 30:1083–1095

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mohammed GH (1997) The status and future of stock quality testing. New For 13:491–514

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morrissey RC, Jacobs DF, Davis AS, Rathfon RA (2010) Survival and competitiveness of Quercus rubra regeneration associated with planting stocktype and harvest opening intensity. New For 40:273–287

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Munson AD, Bernier PY (1993) Comparing natural and planted black spruce seedlings. II. Nutrient uptake and efficiency of use. Can J For Res 23:2435–2442

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newton RJ, Meier CE, Van Buijtenen JP, McKinley CR (1986) Moisture stress management: silviculture and genetics. In: Hennessey TC, Dougherty PD, Kossuth SV, Johnson JD (eds) Stress physiology and forest productivity. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Forestry Sciences, The Hague, pp 35–60

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Oliet J, Planelles R, Artero F, Jacobs D (2005) Nursery fertilization and tree shelters affect long-term field response of Acacia salicina Lindl. planted in Mediterranean semiarid conditions. For Ecol Manag 215:339–351

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oliet JA, Planelles R, Artero F, Valverde R, Jacobs DF, Segura ML (2009a) Field performance of Pinus halepensis planted in Mediterranean arid conditions: relative influence of seedling morphology and mineral nutrition. New For 37:313–331

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oliet JA, Tejada M, Salifu KF, Collazos A, Jacobs DF (2009b) Performance and nutrient dynamics of holm oak (Quercus ilex L.) seedlings in relation to nursery nutrient loading and post-transplant fertility. Eur J For Res 128:253–263

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oliet JA, Salazar JM, Villar R, Robredo E (2011) Fall fertilization of holm oak affects N and P dynamics, root growth potential, and post-planting phenology and growth. Ann For Sci 68:647–656

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oliet JA, Puértolas J, Planelles R, Jacobs DF (2013) Nutrient loading of forest tree seedlings to promote stress resistance and field performance: a Mediterranean perspective. New For 44:649–669

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Omi SK (1993) The target seedling and how to produce it. In: van Buijtenen JP, Simms T (tech coords) Proceedings of nursery management workshop, Alexandria, LA. Texas Forest Service, College Station, Publ 148, pp 88–118

  • O’Reilly C, Harper CP, McCarthy N, Keane M (2001) Seasonal changes in physiological status, cold storage tolerance and field performance of hybrid larch seedlings in Ireland. Forestry 74:407–421

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Reilly C, Harper C, Keane M (2002) Influence of physiological condition at the time of lifting on the cold storage tolerance and field performance of ash and sycamore. Forestry 75:1–12

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Reilly C, Mortazavi M, Keane M (2003) Effect of physiological status on the cold storage tolerance and field performance of ash, oak and sycamore in Ireland. Phyton-Ann Rei Bot A 43:335–350

    Google Scholar 

  • Oskarsson H, Brynleyfsdottir SJ (2009) The interaction of fertilization in nursery and field on survival, growth and the frost heaving of birch and spruce. Icel Agric Sci 22:59–68

    Google Scholar 

  • Ovalle JF, Arellano EC, Oliet JA, Becerra P, Ginocchio R (2016) Linking nursery nutritional status and water availability post-planting under intense summer drought: the case of a South American Mediterranean tree species. iForest. doi:10.3832/ifor1905-009

    Google Scholar 

  • Pedlar JH, McKenney DW, Beaulieu J, Colombo SJ, McLachlan JS, O’Neill GA (2011) The implementation of assisted migration in Canadian forests. For Chron 87:766–777

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perks MP, Monaghan S, O’Reilly C, Osborne BA, Mitchell DT (2001) Chlorophyll fluorescence characteristics, performance and survival of freshly lifted and cold stored Douglas fir seedlings. Ann For Sci 58:225–235

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pinto JR (2011) Morphology targets: what do seedling morphological attributes tell us? In: Riley LE, Haase DL, Pinto JR (tech coords) National proc: forest and conservation nursery associations—2010. RMRS-P-65. USDA Forest Service, Portland, pp 74–79

  • Pinto JR, Marshall JD, Dumroese RK, Davis AS, Cobos DR (2011) Establishment and growth of container seedlings for reforestation: a function of stocktype and edaphic conditions. For Ecol Manag 261:1876–1884

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pinto JR, Marshall JD, Dumroese RK, Davis AS, Cobos DR (2012) Photosynthetic response, carbon isotopic composition, survival, and growth of three stock types under water stress enhanced by vegetative competition. Can J For Res 42:333–344

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pinto JR, Davis AS, Leary JJK, Aghai MM (2015) Stocktype and grass suppression accelerate the restoration trajectory of Acacia koa in Hawaiian montane ecosystems. New For 46:855–867

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ponder F Jr (2000) Survival and growth of planted hardwoods in harvested openings with first order lateral root differences, root dipping, and tree shelters. North J Appl For 17:45–50

    Google Scholar 

  • Puértolas J, Gil L, Pardos JA (2003) Effects of nutritional status and seedling size on field performance of Pinus halepensis planted on former arable land in the Mediterranean basin. Forestry 76:159–168

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Puértolas J, Gil L, Pardos JA (2005) Effects of nitrogen fertilization and temperature on frost hardiness of Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis Mill.) seedlings assessed by chlorophyll fluorescence. Forestry 78:502–511

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Puttonen P (1989) Criteria for using seedling performance potential tests. New For 3:67–87

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Puttonen P (1997) Looking for the “silver” bullet—can one test do it all? New For 13:9–27

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quoreshi AM, Timmer VR (2000) Early outplanting performance of nutrient-loaded containerized black spruce seedlings inoculated with Laccaria bicolor: a bioassay study. Can J For Res 30:744–752

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Radoglou K, Cabral R, Repo T, Hasanagasi N, Sutinen M-L, Waisel Y (2007) Appraisal of root leakage as a method for estimation of root viability. Plant Biosyst 141:443–459

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rawat JS, Singh TP (2000) Seedling indices of four tree species in nursery and their correlations with field growth in Tamil Nadu, India. Agroforest Syst 49:289–300

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Regan DJ, Apostol KG, Davis AS (2015) Stocktype influences western white pine seedling size 6 years after outplanting. Tree Planters’ Notes 58:37–41

    Google Scholar 

  • Renou-Wilson F, Keane M, Farrell EP (2008) Effect of planting stocktype and cultivation treatment on the establishment of Norway spruce on cutaway peatlands. New For 36:307–330

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rikala R, Repo T (1997) The effect of late summer fertilization on the frost hardening of second-year Scots pine seedlings. New For 14:33–44

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rikala R, Heiskanen J, Lahti M (2004) Autumn fertilization in the nursery affects growth of Picea abies container seedlings after transplanting. Scand J Forest Res 19:409–414

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ritchie GA (1984) Assessing seedling quality. In: Duryea ML, Landis TD (eds) Forest nursery manual: production of bareroot seedlings. Martinus Nijhoff/Dr W Junk Publishers, The Hague, pp 243–266

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Ritchie GA (1985) Root growth potential: principles, procedures, and predictive ability. In: Duryea ML (ed) Evaluating seedling quality: principles, procedures, and predictive ability of major tests. Oregon State University, Forest Research Laboratory, Corvallis, pp 93–106

    Google Scholar 

  • Ritchie GA, Dunlap JR (1980) Root growth potential: its development and expression in forest tree seedlings. NZ J For Sci 10:218–248

    Google Scholar 

  • Ritchie GA, Tanaka Y (1990) Root growth potential and the target seedling. In: Rose R., Campbell SJ, Landis TD (eds) Target seedling symposium: proceedings, combined meeting of Western forest nursery associations. RM-GTR-200. USDA Forest Service, Roseburg, pp 37–51

  • Ritchie GA, Landis TD, Dumroese RK, Haase DL (2010) Assessing plant quality. In: Landis TD, Dumroese RK, Haase DL (2010) Seedling processing, storage, and outplanting. The container tree nursery manual. Agriculture handbook 674, vol 7. USDA Forest Service, Washington DC, pp 17–82

  • Rose R, Carlson WC, Morgan P (1990) The target seedling concept. In: Rose R, Campbell SJ, Landis TD (eds) Target seedling symposium: proceedings: combined meeting of the Western forest nursery associations. RM-GTR-200. USDA Forest Service, Roseburg, pp 1–8

  • Rose R, Ketchum JS (2003) Interaction of initial seedling diameter, fertilization and weed control on Douglas-fir growth over the first four years after planting. Ann For Sci 60:625–635

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rose R, Haase DL, Kroiher F, Sabin T (1997) Root volume and growth of ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir seedlings: a summary of eight growing seasons. West J Appl For 12:69–73

    Google Scholar 

  • Royo A, Gil L, Pardos JA (2001) Effect of water stress conditioning on morphology, physiology and field performance of Pinus halepensis Mill. seedlings. New For 21:127–140

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rudolf PO (1939) Why forest plantations fail. J For 37:377–383

    Google Scholar 

  • Salifu KF, Timmer VR (2003) Optimizing nitrogen loading of Picea mariana seedlings during nursery culture. Can J For Res 33:1287–1294

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salifu KF, Jacobs DF, Birge ZKD (2009) Nursery nitrogen loading improves field performance of bareroot oak seedlings planted on abandon mine lands. Restor Ecol 17:339–349

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sambeek JW, Godsey LD, Walter WD, Garrett HE, Dwyer JP (2016) Field performance of Quercus bicolor established as repeatedly air-root-pruned container and bareroot planting stock. Open J For 6:163–176

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt-Vogt H (1981) Morphological and physiological characteristics of planting stock: present state of research and research tasks for the future. In: Proceedings of the IUFRO 17th World Congress, Tokyo, pp 433–446

  • Schott KM, Snively AEK, Landhäusser SM, Pinno BD (2016) Nutrient loaded seedlings reduce the need for field fertilization and vegetation management on boreal forest reclamation sites. New For 47:393–410

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schultz RC, Thompson JR (1997) Effect of density control and undercutting on root morphology of 1 + 0 bareroot hardwood seedlings: five-year field performance of root-graded stock in the central USA. New For 13:301–314

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Semerci A (2005) Fifth year performance of morphologically graded Cedrus libani seedlings in the Central Anatolia region of Turkey. Turk J Agric For 29:483–491

    Google Scholar 

  • Simpson DG, Ritchie GA (1997) Does RGP predict field performance? A debate. New For 13:253–277

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simpson DG, Vyse A (1995) Planting stock performance: site and RGP effects. For Chron 71:739–742

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simpson DG, Thompson CF, Sutherland CD (1994) Field performance potential of interior spruce seedlings: effects of stress treatments and prediction by root growth potential and needle conductance. Can J For Res 24:576–586

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • South DB (2000) Planting morphologically improved pine seedlings to increase survival and growth. Auburn University, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, Forestry and Wildlife Research Series No. 1

  • South DB, Donald DGM (2002) Effect of nursery conditioning treatments and fall fertilization on survival and early growth of Pinus taeda seedlings in Alabama, USA. Can J For Res 32:1171–1179

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • South DB, Mitchell RJ (1999) Determining the “optimum” slash pine seedling size for use with four levels of vegetation management on a flatwoods site in Georgia, USA. Can J For Res 29:1039–1046

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • South DB, Rakestraw JL (2002) A loblolly pine seedling-grade by genotype study. South J Appl For 26:153–158

    Google Scholar 

  • South DB, Rakestraw JL, Lowerts GA (2001) Early gains from planting large diameter seedlings and intensive management are additive for loblolly pine. New For 22:97–110

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • South DB, Harris SW, Barnett JP, Hainds MJ, Gjerstad DH (2005a) Effect of container type and seedling size on survival and early height growth of Pinus palustris seedlings in Alabama, USA. For Ecol Manag 204:385–398

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • South DB, VanderSchaaf CL, Britt JR (2005b) Reforestation costs can be decreased by lowering initial stocking and outplanting morphologically improved seedlings. Nat Plants J 6:76–82

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • South DB, Lyons A, Pohl R (2015) Transplant size affects early growth of a Pinus taeda clone. Math Comput For Nat Res Sci 7(2):39–42

    Google Scholar 

  • Spittlehouse DL, Stewart RB (2003) Adaptation to climate change in forest management. J Ecosyst Manag 4:1–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Stattin E, Verhoef N, Balk P, van Wordragen M, Lindström A (2012) Development of a molecular test to determine the vitality status of Norway spruce (Picea abies) seedlings during frozen storage. New For 43:665–678

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart JD, Bernier PY (1995) Gas exchange and water relations of 3 sizes of containerized Picea mariana seedlings subjected to atmospheric and edaphic water stress under controlled conditions. Ann For Sci 52:1–9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stone EC (1955) Poor survival and the physiological condition of planting stock. For Sci 1:89–94

    Google Scholar 

  • Sutton RF (1979) Planting stock quality and grading. For Ecol Manag 2:123–132

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sutton R (1980) Evaluation of planting stock quality. NZ J For Sci 10:293–300

    Google Scholar 

  • Sutton RF (1990) Root growth capacity in coniferous forest trees. HortScience 25:259–266

    Google Scholar 

  • Takoutsing B, Tchoundjeu Z, Degrande A, Asaah E, Gyau A, Nkeumoe F, Tsobeng A (2013) Assessing the quality of seedlings in small-scale nurseries in the highlands of Cameroon: the use of growth characteristics and quality thresholds as indicators. Small Scale For 13:65–77

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Teskey RO, Hinckley TM (1986) Moisture: effects of water stress on trees. In: Hennessey TC, Dougherty PD, Kossuth SV, Johnson JD (eds) Stress physiology and forest productivity. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Forestry Series, The Hague, pp 9–33

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Thiffault N (2004) Stock type in intensive silviculture: a (short) discussion about roots and size. For Chron 80:463–468

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thiffault N, Jobidon R, Munson AD (2014) Comparing large containerized and bareroot conifer stock on sites of contrasting vegetation composition in a non-herbicide scenario. New For 45:875–891

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson BE (1985) Seedling morphological evaluation: what you can tell by looking. In: Duryea ML (ed) Evaluating seedling quality: principles, procedures, and predictive ability of major tests. Oregon State University, Forest Research Laboratory, Corvallis, pp 59–72

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson JR, Schultz RC (1995) Root system morphology of Quercus rubra L. planting stock and 3-year field performance in lowa. New For 9:225–236

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Timmer VR (1997) Exponential nutrient loading: a new fertilization technique to improve seedling performance on competitive sites. New For 13:279–299

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Timmer VR, Aidelbaum AS (1996) Manual for exponential nutrient loading of seedlings to improve outplanting performance on competitive forest sites. NRCan, CFS-GLFC, NODA/NFP Technical Report TR-25

  • Timmis R (1980) Stress resistance and quality criteria for tree seedlings: analysis, measurement and use. NZ J For Sci 10:21–53

    Google Scholar 

  • Tinus RW (1974) Characteristics of seedlings with high survival potential. In: Tinus RW, Stein WI, Balmer WE (eds) Proceeding: North American containerized forest tree seedling symposium. Great Plains Agricultural Council, Publ No 68, pp 276–282

  • Tinus RW (1996) Cold hardiness testing to time lifting and packing of container stock: a case history. Tree Planters’ Notes 47:62–67

    Google Scholar 

  • Toumey JW (1916) Seeding and planting. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsakaldimi M, Zagas T, Tsitsoni T, Ganatsas P (2005) Root morphology, stem growth and field performance of seedlings of two Mediterranean evergreen oak species raised in different container types. Plant Soil 278:85–93

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • US Forest Service (1995–2015) Forest nursery notes. National Reforestation, Nurseries, and Genetic Resources (NRNG) Program, US Forest Service. http://www.rngr.net/publications. Accessed 28 Jul 2017

  • Uscola M, Villar-Salvador P, Gross P, Maillard P (2015) Fast growth involves a high use of stored resources for seedling spring shoot growth in Mediterranean evergreen trees. Ann Bot 115:1001–1013

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • van den Driessche R (1976) How far do seedling standards reflect seedling quality? In: Proceedings of the XVI IUFRO World Congress, Oslo, pp 50–52

  • van den Driessche R (1991) Effects of nutrients on stock performance in the forest. In: van den Driessche R (ed) Mineral nutrition of conifer seedlings. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 229–260

    Google Scholar 

  • VanderSchaaf C, McNabb K (2004) Winter nitrogen fertilization of loblolly pine seedlings. Plant Soil 265:295–299

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Villar-Salvador P, Penuelles R, Enriquez E, Penuelas J, Rubira JL (2004a) Nursery cultivation regimes, plant functional attributes, and field performance relationship in Mediterranean oak Quercus ilex L. For Ecol Manag 196:257–266

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Villar-Salvador P, Penuelles R, Oliet J, Enriquez E, Penuelas JL, Jacobs DF, Gonzalez M (2004b) Drought tolerance and transplanting performance of holm oak (Quercus ilex) seedlings after drought hardening in the nursery. Tree Physiol 24:1147–1155

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Villar-Salvador P, Puértolas J, Cuesta B, Peñuelas JL, Uscola M, Heredia-Guerrero N, Rey Benayas JM (2012) Increase in size and nitrogen concentration enhances seedling survival in Mediterranean plantations. Insights from an ecophysiological conceptual model of plant survival. New For 43:755–770

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Villar-Salvador P, Uscola M, Jacobs DF (2015) The role of stored carbohydrates and nitrogen in the growth and stress tolerance of planted forest trees. New For 46:813–839

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wakeley PC (1948) Physiological grades of southern pine nursery stock. In: Proceedings: Society American Forest 1948, pp 311–322

  • Wakeley PC (1954) Planting the southern pines. USDA Forest Service Agriculture Monograph No 18

  • Wang J, Li G, Pinto JR, Liu J, Shi W, Liu Y (2015) Both nursery and field performance determine suitable nitrogen supply of nursery-grown, exponentially fertilized Chinese pine. Silva Fenn. doi:10.14214/sf.1295

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang J, Yu H, Li G, Zhang F (2016) Growth and nutrient dynamics of transplanted Quercus variabilis seedlings as influenced by pre-hardening and fall fertilization. Silva Fenn. doi:10.14214/sf.1475

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward JS, Gent MPN, Stevens GR (2000) Effects of planting stock quality and browse protection-type on height growth of northern red oak and eastern white pine. For Ecol Manag 127:205–216

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Way DA, Seegobin SD, Sage RF (2007) The effect of carbon and nutrient loading during nursery culture on the growth of black spruce seedlings: a six-year field study. New For 34:307–312

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson BC, Jacobs DF (2006) Quality assessment of temperate zone deciduous hardwood seedlings. New For 31:417–433

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu X, Timmer VR (1999) Growth and nitrogen nutrition of Chinese fir seedlings exposed to nutrient loading and fertilization. Plant Soil 216:83–91

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yamashita N, Okuda S, Suwa R, Kajimoto T (2016) Impact of leaf removal on initial survival and growth of container-grown and bare-root seedlings of Hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa). For Ecol Manag. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2016.03.054

    Google Scholar 

  • Zaerr JB (1985) The role of biochemical measurements in evaluating vigor. In: Duryea ML (ed) Evaluating seedling quality: principles, procedures, and predictive ability of major tests. Oregon State University, Forest Research Laboratory, Corvallis, pp 137–141

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhu Y, Dumroese RK, Pinto JR, Li GL, Liu Y (2013) Fall fertilization enhanced nitrogen storage and translocation in Larix olgensis seedlings. New For 44:849–861

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zida D, Tigabu M, Sawadogo L, Oden PC (2008) Initial seedling morphological characteristics and field performance of two Sudanian savanna species in relation to nursery production period and watering regimes. For Ecol Manag 255:2151–2162

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zobel BJ, Talbert JT (1984) Applied forest tree improvement. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. Kas Dumroese for providing many of the publications used in this review article; Caroline Simpson for her tireless copyediting; and Dr. Alex Mosseler and Darren Allen for their thoughtful manuscript reviews.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. NurseryToForest Solutions, 1325 Readings Drive, Sidney, BC, V8L 5K7, Canada

    Steven C. Grossnickle

  2. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service – Atlantic Forestry Centre, PO Box 4000, Fredericton, NB, E3B 5P7, Canada

    Joanne E. MacDonald

Authors
  1. Steven C. Grossnickle
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Joanne E. MacDonald
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Steven C. Grossnickle.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Grossnickle, S.C., MacDonald, J.E. Why seedlings grow: influence of plant attributes. New Forests 49, 1–34 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-017-9606-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-017-9606-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation