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Moving between language frontiers: the challenges of the medium of instruction policy for Chinese as a second language

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Abstract

This article explores the extent to which the medium of instruction (MOI) policy in Hong Kong affect ethnic minority students’ Chinese language learning in school amidst postcolonial policy changes, and how the “flexible” MOI policy affects Chinese as a second language (CSL) frontline teaching in mainstream secondary schools with reference to the three orientations to language planning, namely language-as-problem, language-as-right, and language-as-resource (Ruiz 1984). It reports on a large-scale longitudinal study on the implementation of the “flexible” MOI policy, which is targeted to address the challenges that ethnic minority students and Chinese language teachers are faced with in CSL learning and teaching. Twenty-six CSL teachers and twenty students were target-sampled from fourteen schools involved in the same study. Based on an analysis of interview data through triangulation and critical discourse analysis, the authors argue that (1) difficulties in adapting to the new MOI for the Chinese Language subject would likely lead to low motivation levels and adversely affect CSL development among the students; (2) CSL teachers also experience difficulties in helping ethnic minority students to make successful transition for reasons including huge learning differences, limited time and resources, as well as marked linguistic differences between the two Chinese language variants. The authors recommend that policy reviews be carried out to enhance the quality of CSL teaching and learning in the midst of the current attempt at language standardization.

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Change history

  • 14 September 2019

    Multilingualism and policy making in Greater China: ideological and implementational spaces

  • 14 September 2019

    Multilingualism and policy making in Greater China: ideological and implementational spaces

Notes

  1. HKSAR Government Education Bureau Notice No. 8/2014: “Improving the teaching and learning of CL to non-Chinese speaking students” (File no. EDB(EC)5/2041/07).

  2. Given that Putonghua is a lingua franca and taught in most CL classrooms around the world.

  3. HKSAR Government Education Bureau Circular No. 8/2014 “Enhanced Chinese learning and teaching for non-Chinese speaking students” (Ref. EDB (EC 5/2041/07).

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Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the Standing Committee on Language Education and Research (SCOLAR) of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) for their project sponsorship, as well as the schools, teachers and students who participated in this study. Their appreciation also extends to Dr. M.S.K. Shum, Dr. W. W. Ki, Mr. K. W. Sun and Mr. F.K.L. Tang for assisting in the focus group interviews, and Mr. Nixon Leung, Ms. Jenny Zeng, Ms. Sophia Liu, Mr. Kato Chan, Ms. Karen Jiaxin Song and Mr. Jerry Siu-paak Leung for their research assistance.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Chinese Language and Literature, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Room 624, Meng Wah Complex, Pokfulam Road, Pokfulam, Hong Kong

    Elizabeth K. Y. Loh

  2. Centre for Advancement of Chinese Language Education and Research, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Room 643, Meng Wah Complex, Pokfulam Road, Pokfulam, Hong Kong

    Loretta C. W. Tam

  3. Centre for Advancement of Chinese Language Education and Research, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Room 713, Meng Wah Complex, Pokfulam Road, Pokfulam, Hong Kong

    Kwok-chang Lau

Authors
  1. Elizabeth K. Y. Loh
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  2. Loretta C. W. Tam
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  3. Kwok-chang Lau
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Elizabeth K. Y. Loh.

Appendices

Appendix 1

Profile of teacher informants (N = 26)

Informant code

Gender

School type

Density

MOI-CL

Teacher A

M

Subsidized

High

Cantonese

Teacher B

F

Subsidized

High

Cantonese

Teacher C

F

Subsidized

High

Cantonese

Teacher D

M

Subsidized

High

Cantonese

Teacher E

M

Subsidized

High

Cantonese, Putonghua

Teacher F

F

Subsidized

Low

Cantonese, Putonghua

Teacher G

F

Subsidized

Low

Cantonese

Teacher H

F

Subsidized

Low

Cantonese

Teacher I

M

DSSa

High

Cantonese, Putonghua

Teacher J

M

DSS

High

Cantonese, Putonghua

Teacher K

F

DSS

High

Cantonese

Teacher L

F

DSS

High

Cantonese

Teacher M

F

DSS

High

Cantonese, Putonghua

Teacher N

F

DSS

High

Cantonese

Teacher O

F

DSS

High

Putonghua

Teacher P

F

DSS

High

Cantonese

Teacher Q

F

DSS

Medium

Cantonese, Putonghua

Teacher R

F

DSS

Medium

Cantonese

Teacher S

F

DSS

Low

Cantonese

Teacher T

M

DSS

Low

Cantonese

Teacher U

F

DSS

Low

Cantonese

Teacher V

M

DSS

Low

Cantonese

Teacher W

F

DSS

Low

Cantonese

Teacher X

F

DSS

Low

Cantonese

Teacher Y

F

Government

Low

Cantonese

Teacher Z

M

Government

Low

Cantonese

  1. Direct Subsidy Scheme (DSS) was implemented in 2001. Schools under this scheme have greater flexibility in various areas including curriculum design and student admission. They are also allowed to collect school fees for the provision of additional support services and school facilities. (Education Bureau 2017, downloaded from http://www.edb.gov.hk/en/edu-system/primary-secondary/applicable-to-primary-secondary/direct-subsidy-scheme/index/info-sch.html)

Appendix 2

Guiding questions for interviews and focus groups with teachers

  1. 1.

    How many years have you spent on teaching Chinese as a first language AND/OR as a second language?

  2. 2.

    What medium of instruction do you use in your Chinese language classes for EM students?

  3. 3.

    Which public examination(s) do your students take for the CL subject?

  4. 4.

    Did your EM students encounter any common difficulties and challenges in learning Chinese? If yes, could you please tell us more?

  5. 5.

    Did you encounter any difficulties and challenges in teaching Chinese to EM students? If yes, could you please tell us more? What did you do to resolve the issues resulted from such difficulties and challenges?

  6. 6.

    Are such difficulties and challenges anything to do with the change of medium of instruction for Chinese lessons during the primary-secondary transition? Could you give us one or two examples?

  7. 7.

    Did you get any help or support from your colleagues and schools? If yes, how did they try to help you? Was that effective?

  8. 8.

    Any suggestions for overcoming the difficulties and challenges you AND your EM students are currently facing?

Appendix 3

Profile of student informants (N = 20)

Informant code

Gender

Type

Form

Ethnicity

Student A

F

DSS (HD)

Form 3

Pakistani

Student B

F

DSS (HD)

Form 3

Indian

Student C

F

DSS (HD)

Form 4

Nepalese

Student D

M

DSS (HD)

Form 4

Filipino

Student E

F

DSS (MD)

Form 4

Indian

Student F

F

DSS (MD)

Form 4

Indian

Student G

F

DSS (MD)

Form 4

Nepalese

Student H

F

DSS (MD)

Form 4

Indian

Student I

F

DSS (HD)

Form 1

British-Mauritian

Student J

F

DSS (HD)

Form 4

Irish-Thai

Student K

M

DSS (HD)

Form 5

Pakistani

Student L

F

DSS (LD)

Form 4

Filipino

Student M

F

DSS (LD)

Form 4

Indonesian

Student N

M

DSS (LD)

Form 4

Filipino

Student O

M

DSS (LD)

Form 3

Filipino

Student P

F

DSS (LD)

Form 2

Filipino

Student Q

M

DSS (LD)

Form 4

Pakistani

Student R

F

Subsidized (LD)

Form 5

Pakistani

Student S

F

DSS (LD)

Form 5

Pakistani

Student T

M

DSS (LD)

Form 3

Pakistani

  1. As for the school type, HD stands for “High Density”, MD for “Medium Density” and LD for “Low Density”

Appendix 4

Guiding questions for interviews with students

  1. 1.

    Could you tell me your name, class, and class number?

  2. 2.

    Were you born in Hong Kong? What is your ethnicity? What languages do you speak at home?

  3. 3.

    How many years have you spent on learning Chinese?

  4. 4.

    What was the MOI for Chinese lessons in your primary school?

  5. 5.

    What is the MOI of Chinese lessons in your current school?

  6. 6.

    Did you encounter any difficulties in learning Chinese? Were they anything to do with the change of MOI for Chinese lessons after promoting to secondary school? Could you tell us more by giving us one or two examples?

  7. 7.

    Did you get any help or support from your teachers and schools? If yes, how did they try to help you? Was that effective?

  8. 8.

    Did you get any help or support from your family regarding your Chinese learning? If yes, how did they try to help you? Was that effective?

  9. 9.

    How do you rate your CL proficiency? (1 being the lowest, 5 being the highest)

  10. 10.

    Which public examination(s) are you going to take OR have already taken?

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Loh, E.K.Y., Tam, L.C.W. & Lau, Kc. Moving between language frontiers: the challenges of the medium of instruction policy for Chinese as a second language. Lang Policy 18, 131–153 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-018-9465-7

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