Abstract
This paper presents the psychometric development of a new observer-report research questionnaire for assessing aspects of an individual’s mindfulness that are noticeable to others. Items from five established self-report mindfulness scales were re-worded for observer-report, and 30 were endorsed for potential inclusion by an expert panel (n = 5). Factor analytic and item response theory models were used to test item and scale psychometrics with data (N = 494) in three independent samples. A nine-item, three-factor scale with good fit indices was determined (RMSEA = 0.04, CFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.99). The instrument provides an overall score for observed mindful behaviours and subscale scores for observed attentiveness, awareness and acceptance. Within-subject test–retest reliability was strong (ICC 0.91) and agreement between observed mindful behaviours and self-reported mindfulness was adequate (ICC 0.45). Validity tests showed concordance between the new scale and self-reported mindfulness within the selected nomological network constructs (emotional intelligence, empathy and avoidant behaviours). Responsiveness was indicated but unconfirmed in data from a randomized controlled trial of low-dose mindfulness training. The Observed Mindfulness Measure (OMM) is a quantitative instrument that can provide an additional data source to strengthen self-reported findings in mindfulness research. With some further refinement this new instrument can advance research into whether and how mindfulness training might make a noticeable difference in social and organizational domains.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of Data
Study data can be made available by the corresponding author, via a data sharing agreement.
Notes
Readers are invited to view the Online Supplementary Materials for a summary description of the mechanisms and outcomes of mindfulness practice as they cultivate internal and external experiences.
References
Allen, T. D., Eby, L. T., Conley, K. M., Williamson, R. L., Mancini, V. S., & Mitchell, M. E. (2015). What do we really know about the effects of mindfulness-based training in the workplace? Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 8(04), 652–661. https://doi.org/10.1017/iop.2015.95
Atkins, P. W. B., & Wood, R. E. (2002). Self- versus others’ ratings as predictors of assessment center ratings: validation evidence for 360-degree feedback programs. Personnel Psychology, 55(4), 871–904. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2002.tb00133.x
Aydin Sünbül, Z. (2019). Indirect relations of mindful awareness with different forms of prosocial actions within college students: The mediating role of empathy. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00342-6
Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., & Allen, K. B. (2004). Assessment of mindfulness by self-report: The Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills. Assessment, 11(3), 191–206. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191104268029
Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Hopkins, J., Krietemeyer, J., & Toney, L. (2006). Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment, 13(1), 27–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191105283504
Baer, R. A., Walsh, E., & Lykins, E. L. (2009). Assessment of mindfulness. Clinical Handbook of Mindfulness (pp. 153–168). NY, USA: Springer.
Barnes, S., Brown, K. W., Krusemark, E., Campbell, W. K., & Rogge, R. D. (2007). The role of mindfulness in romantic relationship satisfaction and responses to relationship stress. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 33(4), 482–500. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-0606.2007.00033.x
Bartlett, L., Lovell, P., Otahal, P., & Sanderson, K. (2016). Acceptability, feasibility, and efficacy of a workplace mindfulness program for public sector employees: A pilot randomized controlled trial with informant reports. Mindfulness, 8(3), 639–654. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0643-4
Bartlett, L., Martin, A., Neil, A. L., Memish, K., Otahal, P., Kilpatrick, M., et al. (2019). A systematic review and meta-analysis of workplace mindfulness training randomized controlled trials. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 24(1), 108–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000146
Bartlett, L., Martin, A. J., Kilpatrick, M., Otahal, P., Sanderson, K., & Neil, A. L. (2021). Effects of a mindfulness app on employee stress: Results of a randomised controlled trial in an Australian public sector workforce. JMIR. https://doi.org/10.2196/preprints.30272
Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., & Funder, D. C. (2007). Psychology as the science of self-reports and finger movements: Whatever happened to actual behavior? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2(4), 396–403. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00051.x
Beaujean, A. A. (2014). Latent variable modeling using R. New York and London: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.
Bergomi, C., Tschacher, W., & Kupper, Z. (2013). The assessment of mindfulness with self-report measures: Existing scales and open issues. Mindfulness, 4(3), 191–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-012-0110-9
Bernaards, C. A., & Jennrich, R. I. (2005). Gradient projection algorithms and software for arbitrary rotation criteria in factor analysis. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 65, 676–696.
Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L. E., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., et al. (2004). Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11(3), 230–241. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy/bph077
Block-Lerner, J., Adair, C., Plumb, J. C., Rhatigan, D. L., & Orsillo, S. M. (2007). The case for mindfulness-based approaches in the cultivation of empathy: Does nonjudgmental, present-moment awareness increase capacity for perspective-taking and empathic concern? Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 33(4), 501–516. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-0606.2007.00034.x
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 822–848. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822
Cairns, V., & Murray, C. (2015). How do the features of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy contribute to positive therapeutic change? A meta-synthesis of qualitative studies. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 43(3), 342–359. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1352465813000945
Cardaciotto, L., Herbert, J. D., Forman, E. M., Moitra, E., & Farrow, V. (2008). The assessment of present-moment awareness and acceptance: The Philadelphia Mindfulness Scale. Assessment, 15(2), 204–223. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191107311467
Chalmers, R. P. (2012). mirt: A multidimensional item response theory package for the R environment. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(1), 1−29. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i06
Chambers, R., Gullone, E., & Allen, N. B. (2009). Mindful emotion regulation: An integrative review. Clinical Psychology Review, 29(6), 560–572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.06.005
Chiesa, A., Calati, R., & Serretti, A. (2011). Does mindfulness training improve cognitive abilities? A systematic review of neuropsychological findings. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(3), 449–464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.11.003
Chiesa, A., & Serretti, A. (2010). A systematic review of neurobiological and clinical features of mindfulness meditations. Psychological Medicine, 40(8), 1239–1252. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291709991747
Choi, E., & Leroy, H. (2015). Methods of mindfulness: How mindfulness is studied in the workplace. Mindfulness in organizations: Foundations, research, and applications. (pp. 67–99). Cambridge University Press, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781107587793.006
Cohen-Katz, J., Wiley, S., Capuano, T., Baker, D. M., Deitrick, L., & Shapiro, S. (2005). The effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on nurse stress and burnout: A qualitative and quantitative study, part III. Holistic Nursing Practice, 19(2), 78–86.
Connelly, B. S., & Ones, D. S. (2010). An other perspective on personality: Meta-analytic integration of observers’ accuracy and predictive validity. Psychological Bulletin, 136(6), 1092–1122.
Creswell, J. D., & Lindsay, E. K. (2014). How does mindfulness training affect health? A mindfulness stress buffering account. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(6), 401–407. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414547415
Cronbach, L., & Meehl, P. (1955). Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychological Bulletin, 52(4), 281–302.
Davidson, R. J., & Kaszniak, A. W. (2015). Conceptual and methodological issues in research on mindfulness and meditation. American Psychologist, 70(7), 581–592. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039512
Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113.
DeVellis, R. F. (2012). Scale development: Theory and applications (Applied Social Research Methods). Sage Publications.
DiStefano, C., Zhu, M., & Mindrila, D. (2009). Understanding and using factor scores: Considerations for the applied researcher. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 14(20), 1–11.
Donald, J. N., Sahdra, B. K., Van Zanden, B., Johannes Duineveld, J., Atkins, P. W. B., Marshall, S., et al. (2019). Does your mindfulness benefit others? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the link between mindfulness and prosocial behavior. British Journal of Psychology, 110(1), 101–125. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12338
Dong, Y., & Peng, C. -Y. J. (2013). Principled missing data methods for researchers. Springerplus, 2(1), 222–222. https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-1801-2-222
Duncan, L. G. (2007). Assessment of mindful parenting among parents of early adolescents: Development and validation of the Interpersonal Mindfulness in Parenting scale. Pennsylvania State University.
Dunn, T. J., Baguley, T., & Brunsden, V. (2014). From alpha to omega: A practical solution to the pervasive problem of internal consistency estimation. British Journal of Psychology, 105(3), 399–412. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12046
Eby, L. T., Allen, T. D., Conley, K. M., Williamson, R. L., Henderson, T. G., & Mancini, V. S. (2017). Mindfulness-based training interventions for employees: A qualitative review of the literature. Human Resource Management Review. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2017.03.004
Eisenberg, N. (2015). Prosocial emotion: Methods and current research. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Altruistic Emotion, Cognition and Behavior (pp. 30–57). London, UK: Taylor & Francis Group. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/utas/detail.action?docID=1864870. Accessed 2016.
Feldman, G., Hayes, A., Kumar, S., Greeson, J., & Laurenceau, J. -P. (2007). Mindfulness and emotion regulation: The development and initial validation of the Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale-Revised (CAMS-R). Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 29(3), 177–190.
Floyd, R. G. (2005). Measurement properties of indirect assessment methods for functional behavioral assessment: A review of research. School Psychology Review, 34(1), 58–73.
Fu, R., Vandermeer, B. W., Shamliyan, T. A., O'Neil, M. E., Yazdi, R., & Fox, S. H., et al. (2013). Handling continuous outcomes in quantitative synthesis. Methods Guide for Effectiveness and Comparative Effectiveness Reviews Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK154408/. Accessed 2017.
Funder, D. C., & Dobroth, K. M. (1987). Differences between traits: Properties associated with interjudge agreement. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 52(2), 409–418.
Funder, D. C., & West, S. G. (1993). Consensus, self-other agreement, and accuracy in personality judgment: An introduction. Journal of Personality, 61(4), 457–476. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1993.tb00778.x
Garland, E. L., Hanley, A. W., Baker, A. K., & Howard, M. O. (2017a). Biobehavioral mechanisms of mindfulness as a treatment for chronic stress: An RDoC perspective. Chronic Stress, 1, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/2470547017711912
Garland, E. L., Hanley, A. W., Goldin, P. R., & Gross, J. J. (2017b). Testing the mindfulness-to-meaning theory: Evidence for mindful positive emotion regulation from a ranalysis of longitudinal data. PLoS One, 12(12), e0187727. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0187727
Gillespie, B., Davey, M. P., & Flemke, K. (2015). Intimate partners’ perspectives on the relational effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction training: A qualitative research study. Contemporary Family Therapy, 37(4), 396–407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10591-015-9350-x
Goldberg, S. B., Tucker, R. P., Greene, P. A., Simpson, T. L., Hoyt, W. T., Kearney, D. J., et al. (2019). What can we learn from randomized clinical trials about the construct validity of self-report measures of mindfulness? A meta-analysis. Mindfulness, 10(5), 775–785. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-1032-y
Goldberg, S. B., Tucker, R. P., Greene, P. A., Simpson, T. L., Kearney, D. J., & Davidson, R. J. (2017). Is mindfulness research methodology improving over time? A systematic review. PLoS One, 12(10). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0187298
Good, D. J., Lyddy, C. J., Glomb, T. M., Bono, J. E., Brown, K. W., Duffy, M. K., et al. (2016). Contemplating mindfulness at work. Journal of Management, 42(1), 114. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206315617003
Grossman, P. (2018). On the porosity of subject and object in “mindfulness” scientific study: Challenges to “scientific” construction, operationalization and measurement of mindfulness. MindRxiv. https://doi.org/10.31231/osf.io/3hqg8
Grossman, P., & Van Dam, N. T. (2011). Mindfulness, by any other name…: Trials and tribulations of sati in western psychology and science. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 219–239. https://doi.org/10.1080/14639947.2011.564841
Harris, P. A., Taylor, R., Thielke, R., Payne, J., Gonzalez, N., & Conde, J. G. (2009). Research electronic data capture (REDCap) - A metadata-driven methodology and workflow process for providing translational research informatics support. Journal of Biomedical Information, 42(2), 377–381.
Hayes, S. C., Luoma, J. B., Bond, F. W., Masuda, A., & Lillis, J. (2006). Acceptance and commitment therapy: Model, processes and outcomes. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44(1), 1–25.
Hays, R. D., Morales, L. S., & Reise, S. P. (2000). Item response theory and health outcomes measurement in the 21st century. Medical Care, 38(9), II28–II42.
Horner, J. K., Piercy, B. S., Eure, L., & Woodard, E. K. (2014). A pilot study to evaluate mindfulness as a strategy to improve inpatient nurse and patient experiences. Applied Nursing Research, 27(3), 198.
Hugh-Jones, S., Rose, S., Koutsopoulou, G. Z., & Simms-Ellis, R. (2018). How is stress reduced by a workplace mindfulness intervention? A qualitative study conceptualising experiences of change. Mindfulness, 9(2), 474–487. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0790-2
Hyland, P. K., Lee, R. A., & Mills, M. J. (2015). Mindfulness at work: A new approach to improving individual and organizational performance. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 8(04), 576–602. https://doi.org/10.1017/iop.2015.41
Jacobs, I., Wollny, A., Sim, C. W., & Horsch, A. (2016). Mindfulness facets, trait emotional intelligence, emotional distress, and multiple health behaviors: A serial two-mediator model. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 57(3), 207–214. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12285
Jaurequi, M. E. (2019). Adult attachment and mindfulness on mental health: A systematic research synthesis. Journal of Relationships Research, 10, e17. https://doi.org/10.1017/jrr.2019.15
Jha, A. P., Stanley, E. A., Kiyonaga, A., Wong, L., & Gelfand, L. (2010). Examining the protective effects of mindfulness training on working memory capacity and affective experience. Emotion, 10(1), 54–64. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018438
Karremans, J. C., Schellekens, M. P., & Kappen, G. (2017). Bridging the sciences of mindfulness and romantic relationships. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 21(1), 29–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868315615450
Khaddouma, A., Coop Gordon, K., & Strand, E. B. (2017). Mindful mates: A pilot study of the relational effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on participants and their partners. Family Process, 56(3), 636–651. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12226
Khoury, B., Sharma, M., Rush, S. E., & Fournier, C. (2015). Mindfulness-based stress reduction for healthy individuals: A meta-analysis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 78(6), 519–528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2015.03.009
Kirkwood, B. R., & Sterne, J. A. C. (2013). Essential medical statistics. Blackwell.
Koo, T. K., & Li, M. Y. (2016). A guideline of selecting and reporting intraclass correlation coefficients for reliability research. Journal of Chiropractic Medicine, 15(2), 155–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcm.2016.02.012
Kreplin, U., Farias, M., & Brazil, I. A. (2018). The limited prosocial effects of meditation: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Scientific Reports, 8(1), 2403. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-20299-z
Lemberger-Truelove, M. E., Carbonneau, K. J., Zieher, A. K., & Atencio, D. J. (2019). Support for the development and use of the Child Observation of Mindfulness Measure (C-OMM). Mindfulness. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-019-1094-5
Lewin, S., Glenton, C., Munthe-Kaas, H., Carlsen, B., Colvin, C. J., Gülmezoglu, M., et al. (2015). Using qualitative evidence in decision making for health and social interventions: An approach to assess confidence in findings from qualitative evidence syntheses (GRADE-CERQual). PLoS Medicine, 12(10), e1001895. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001895
Lietz, P. (2010). Research into questionnaire design: A summary of the literature. International Journal of Market Research, 52(2). https://doi.org/10.2501/S147078530920120X
Madill, A., & Gough, B. (2008). Qualitative research and its place in psychological science. Psychological Methods, 13(3), 254–271.
Malinowski, P. (2013). Neural mechanisms of attentional control in mindfulness meditation (Focused Review). Frontiers in Neuroscience, 7(8). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2013.00008
Markon, K. E., Quilty, L. C., Bagby, R. M., & Krueger, R. F. (2013). The development and psychometric properties of an informant-report form of the personality inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5). Assessment, 20(3), 370–383. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191113486513
May, L. M., & Reinhardt, K. M. (2018). Self-other agreement in the assessment of mindfulness using the five-facet mindfulness questionnaire. Mindfulness, 9(1), 105–116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0749-3
Miao, C., Humphrey, R. H., & Qian, S. (2018). The relationship between emotional intelligence and trait mindfulness: A meta-analytic review. Personality and Individual Differences, 135, 101–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.06.051
Muraki, E., & Muraki, M. (2016). Generalized partial credit model. In W. J. van der Linden (Ed.), Handbook of Item Response Theory New York: Taylor & Francis.
Olino, T. M., & Klein, D. N. (2015). Psychometric comparison of self- and informant-reports of personality. Assessment, 22(6), 655–664. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191114567942
Osborne, J. W. (2002). Notes on the use of data transformations. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 8(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.7275/4vng-5608
Ostroff, C., Atwater, L. E., & Feinberg, B. J. (2004). Understanding self-other agreement: A look at rater and ratee characteristics, context and outcomes. Personnel Psychology, 57(2), 333–375. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2004.tb02494.x
Pirson, M., Langer, E., & Zilcha, S. (2018). Enabling a socio-cognitive perspective of mindfulness: The development and validation of the Langer Mindfulness Scale. Journal of Adult Development, 25, 168–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-018-9282-4
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J.-Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.06.051
Pratscher, S. D., Wood, P. K., King, L. A., & Bettencourt, B. A. (2018). Interpersonal mindfulness: Scale development and initial construct validation. Mindfulness. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-1057-2
Qu, Y., Dasborough, M. T., & Todorova, G. (2015). Which mindfulness measures to choose to use? Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 8(04), 710–723. https://doi.org/10.1017/iop.2015.105
R Core Team. (2014) 'R: A language and environment for statistical computing.'. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Vienna, Austria. Available at: www.R-project.org. Accessed 3 April 2017.
Reb, J., & Choi, E. (2014). Mindfulness in organizations. Psychology of Meditation. (pp. 279–309). Nova Science Publishers, Hauppauge, NY.
Revelle, W. (2019). psych: Procedures for Psychological, Psychometric, and Personality Research. The Comprehensive R Archive Network (CRAN), Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois. www.CRAN.R-project.org/package=psych. Accessed 2019.
Revelle, W., & French, J. A. (2013). The Personality Project. Personality, Motivation and Cognition Laboratory, Northwestern University. https://www.personality-project.org. Accessed 2018.
Rizopoulos, D. (2006). ltm: An R package for latent variable modelling and item response theory analyses. Journal of Statistical Software, 17(5), 1–25.
Roberts, M. J., Campbell, J. L., Richards, S. H., & Wright, C. (2013). Self-other agreement in multisource feedback: The influence of doctor and rater group characteristics. Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions, 33(1), 14–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/chp.21162
Roche, M., Haar, J. M., & Luthans, F. (2014). The role of mindfulness and psychological capital on the well-being of leaders. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 19(4), 476. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037183
Rosenthal, R. (2009). Experimenter effects in behavioral research. In R. Rosenthal & R. L. Rosnow (Eds.), Artifacts in Behavorial Research (pp. 297–652). Oxford University Press.
Rosseel, Y. (2012). lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2), 1–36.
Roszkowski, M. J., & Soven, M. (2010). Shifting gears: Consequences of including two negatively worded items in the middle of a positively worded questionnaire. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 35(1), 117–134. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602930802618344
Salovey, P., Mayer, J. D., Goldman, S. L., Turvey, C., & Palfai, T. P. (1995). Emotional attention, clarity, and repair: Exploring emotional intelligence using the Trait Meta-Mood Scale. In J. W. Pennebaker (Ed.), Emotion, Disclosure, and Health (pp. 125–154). American Psychological Association.
Sandelowski, M., Docherty, S., & Emden, C. (1997). Qualitative metasynthesis: Issues and techniques. Research in Nursing & Health, 20(4), 365–371. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-240X(199708)20:4%3c365::AID-NUR9%3e3.0.CO;2-E
Sharp, J. E., & Jennings, P. A. (2016). Strengthening teacher presence through mindfulness: What educators say about the Cultivating Awareness and Resilience in Education (CARE) program. Mindfulness, 7(1), 209–218. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0474-8
Singh, N. N., Lancioni, G. E., Karazsia, B. T., Myers, R. E., Winton, A. S. W., Latham, L. L., et al. (2015). Effects of training staff in MBPBS on the use of physical restraints, staff stress and turnover, staff and peer injuries, and cost effectiveness in developmental disabilities. Mindfulness, 6(4), 926–937. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-011-0056-3
Singh, N. N., Lancioni, G. E., Winton, A. S. W., Singh, J., Singh, A. N., Adkins, A. D., et al. (2010). Training in mindful caregiving transfers to parent-child interactions. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19(2), 167–174. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-009-9267-9
Siu, A. F. Y., Ma, Y., & Chui, F. W. Y. (2016). Maternal mindfulness and child social behavior: The mediating role of the mother-child relationship. Mindfulness, 7(3), 577–583. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0491-2
Smith, G. T., Fischer, S., & Fister, S. M. (2003). Incremental validity principles in test construction. Psychological Assessment, 15(4), 467–477. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.15.4.467
Taylor, C., Harrison, J., Haimovitz, K., Oberle, E., Thomson, K., Schonert-Reichl, K., et al. (2016). Examining ways that a mindfulness-based intervention reduces stress in public school teachers: A mixed-methods study. Mindfulness, 7(1), 115–129. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0425-4
Thera, S. (1998). The Way of Mindfulness: The Satipatthana Sutta and Its Commentary. Access to Insight. https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/soma/wayof.html. Accessed 30 Jan 2019.
Van Dam, N. T., van Vugt, M. K., Vago, D. R., Schmalzl, L., Saron, C. D., Olendzki, A., et al. (2017). Mind the hype: A critical evaluation and prescriptive agenda for research on mindfulness and meditation. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(1), 36–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617709589
Van de Mortel, T. F. (2008). Faking it: Social desirability response bias in self-report research. The Australian Journal of Advanced Nursing, 25(4), 40–48.
Van Doesum, N. J., Karremans, J. C., Fikke, R. C., de Lange, M. A., & Van Lange, P. A. M. (2018). Social mindfulness in the real world: The physical presence of others induces other-regarding motivation. Social Influence, 13(4), 209–222. https://doi.org/10.1080/15534510.2018.1544589
Van Doesum, N. J., Van Lange, D. A. W., & Van Lange, P. A. M. (2013). Social mindfulness: Skill and will to navigate the social world. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105(1), 86–103. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032540
Van Lange, P. A., & Van Doesum, N. J. (2015). Social mindfulness and social hostility. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 3, 18–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2014.12.009
Varela, F. J., & Shear, J. (1999). First-person methodologies: What, why, how? Journal of Consciousness Studies, 6(2–3), 1–14.
Vazire, S. (2006). Informant reports: A cheap, fast, and easy method for personality assessment. Journal of Research in Personality, 40(5), 472–481. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2005.03.003
Vazire, S. (2010). Who knows what about a person? The self-other knowledge asymmetry (SOKA) model. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 98(2), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017908
Vazire, S., & Mehl, M. R. (2008). Knowing me, knowing you: The accuracy and unique predictive validity of self-ratings and other-ratings of daily behavior. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 95(5), 1202–1216. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013314
Virgili, M. (2015). Mindfulness-based interventions reduce psychological distress in working adults: A meta-analysis of intervention studies. Mindfulness, 6(2), 326–337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-013-0264-0
Walach, H., Buchheld, N., Buttenmüller, V., Kleinknecht, N., & Schmidt, S. (2006). Measuring mindfulness—the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI). Personality and Individual Differences, 40(8), 1543–1555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.025
Acknowledgements
The authors are very grateful for the contributions made by all of the participants who provided data for this study. The project was conceived and progressed by LB as part of her PhD (Medical Sciences) at the Menzies Institute for Medical Research, University of Tasmania, with supervision by AN (Primary), KS, AM and MK. LB has since commenced a post-doctoral appointment with the Wicking Dementia Research and Education Centre. The study team gratefully acknowledges Dr Bruno Cayoun, Professor Ruth A Baer, Professor Harald Walach, Dr Craig Hassed, Pamela Lovell and Professor Gary Johns who acted as Expert Advisors, Tim Albion for technical assistance. The results of this study have been presented in poster format at the 2018 European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology Conference and as an oral presentation at the 2018 Mind and Life Institute’s International Symposium on Contemplative Research.
Funding
LB’s PhD studies were supported by an Australian Government Research Training Program PhD Scholarship, supplemented by the TasNetworks Mental Health and Wellbeing Elite PhD Scholarship.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
LB: designed and executed the study, conducted data analyses, interpreted results and wrote the manuscript. AM: collaborated with study design and writing. RB: provided psychometric guidance for data analyses and interpretation and collaborated with the writing. MK: collaborated with the writing of the study. KS: collaborated in the design and writing of the study. AN: provided research oversight throughout the study as primary PhD supervisor for LB and collaborated to prepare the final manuscript. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript for submission.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Ethics Approval
This study was undertaken in accordance with the ethical standards of the Tasmania Social Sciences Human Research Ethics Committee (ref: H0016587). Informed consent was obtained from all of the participants in the study.
Consent to Participate and Publish
Included participants consented to the use of the survey data provided to develop a new assessment questionnaire (Samples A and B), or to understand the effectiveness of a mindfulness app (Sample C). All samples consented to the publication of findings with the understanding that individual participants would not be identifiable.
Conflicts of Interest
Larissa Bartlett, Angela J. Martin, Raimondo Bruno, Michelle Kilpatrick, Kristy Sanderson and Amanda L. Neil declare no potential conflicts of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bartlett, L., Martin, A.J., Bruno, R. et al. Is Mindfulness a Noticeable Quality? Development and Validation of the Observed Mindfulness Measure. J Psychopathol Behav Assess 44, 165–185 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-021-09936-6
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-021-09936-6