Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Assessment of Mindfulness with Self-Report Measures: Existing Scales and Open Issues

  • ORIGINAL PAPER
  • Published:
Mindfulness Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

During recent years, mindfulness-based approaches have been gaining relevance for treatment in clinical populations. Correspondingly, the empirical study of mindfulness has steadily grown; thus, the availability of valid measures of the construct is critically important. This paper gives an overview of the current status in the field of self-report assessment of mindfulness. All eight currently available and validated mindfulness scales (for adults) are evaluated, with a particular focus on their virtues and limitations and on differences among them. It will be argued that none of these scales may be a fully adequate measure of mindfulness, as each of them offers unique advantages but also disadvantages. In particular, none of them seems to provide a comprehensive assessment of all aspects of mindfulness in samples from the general population. Moreover, some scales may be particularly indicated in investigations focusing on specific populations such as clinical samples (Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale, Southampton Mindfulness Questionnaire) or meditators (Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory). Three main open issues are discussed: (1) the coverage of aspects of mindfulness in questionnaires; (2) the nature of the relationships between these aspects; and (3) the validity of self-report measures of mindfulness. These issues should be considered in future developments in the self-report assessment of mindfulness.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., & Allen, K. B. (2004). Assessment of mindfulness by self-report: the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills. Assessment, 11, 191–206.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Hopkins, J., Krietemeyer, J., & Toney, L. (2006). Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment, 13, 27–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Lykins, E., Button, D., Krietemeyer, J., Sauer, S., Walsh, E., Duggan, D., & Williams, J. M. G. (2008). Construct validity of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire in meditating and nonmeditating samples. Assessment, 15, 329–342.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baer, R. A., Walsh, E., & Lykins, E. L. B. (2009). Assessment of mindfulness. In F. Didonna (Ed.), Clinical handbook of mindfulness (pp. 153–168). New York: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Belzer, F., Schmidt, S., & Lucius-Höhne, G. (2011, June). Freiburger Fragebogen zur Achtsamkeit im Kognitiven Interview. Analyse der Beantwortungsprozesse in Abhängigkeit von Achtsamkeitserfahrung. Speech presented at the 3. Tagung des Forschungsnetzwerks Achtsamkeit (3rd Conference of the Mindfulness Research Network). Bern, Switzerland.

  • Bergomi, C. (2007). Achtsamkeit, buddhistische Meditation und psychische Gesundheit (Unpublished master’s thesis). Psychology Department, University of Bern, Switzerland / Retrieved from http://www.upd.unibe.ch/research/papers/Liz_Bergomi.pdf.

  • Bergomi, C., Tschacher, W., & Kupper, Z. (2012). Measuring mindfulness: first steps towards the development of a comprehensive mindfulness scale. Mindfulness. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s12671-012-0102-9.

  • Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., Segal, Z. V., Abbey, S., Speca, M., Velting, D., & Devins, G. (2004). Mindfulness: a proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11, 230–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: mindfulness and its role in psychological wellbeing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 822–848.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2004). Perils and promises in defining and measuring mindfulness: observations from experience. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11, 242–248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, K. W., Ryan, R. M., & Creswell, J. D. (2007). Mindfulness: theoretical foundations and evidence for its salutary effects. Psychological Inquiry, 18, 211–237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buchheld, N., Grossman, P., & Walach, H. (2001). Measuring mindfulness in insight meditation (Vipassana) and meditation-based psychotherapy: the development of the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI). Journal for Meditation and Meditation Research, 1, 11–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burg, J. & Michalak, J. (2010, October). Assessing mindfulness: is there an alternative to questionnaires? Talk given at the XL European Association for Behavioural and Cognitive Therapies Congress, Milan, Italy.

  • Cardaciotto, L., Herbert, J. D., Forman, E. M., Moitra, E., & Farrow, V. (2008). The assessment of present-moment awareness and acceptance: the Philadelphia Mindfulness Scale. Assessment, 15, 204–223.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, L. E., & Brown, K. W. (2005). Validation of the Mindful Attention Awareness scale in a cancer population. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 58, 29–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carmody, J. (2009). Evolving conceptions of mindfulness in clinical settings. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 23, 270–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carmody, J., Reed, G., Kristeller, J., Merriam, P. (2008). Mindfulness, spirituality, and health-related symptoms. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 64, 393–403.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carriere, J. S. A., Cheyene, J. A., & Smilek, D. (2008). Everyday attention lapses and memory failures: the affective consequences of mindlessness. Consciousness and Cognition, 17, 835–847.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chadwick, P., Hember, M., Symes, J., Peters, E., Kuipers, E., & Dagnan, D. (2008). Responding mindfully to unpleasant thoughts and images: reliability and validity of the Southampton Mindfulness Questionnaire (SMQ). British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 47, 451–455.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Christopher, M. S., Charoensuk, S., Gilbert, B. D., Neary, T. J., & Pearce, K. L. (2009). Mindfulness in Thailand and the United States: a case of apples versus oranges? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65, 590–612.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coffey, K. A., & Hartman, M. (2008). Mechanisms of action in the inverse relationship between mindfulness and psychological distress. Complementary Health Practice Review, 13, 79–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collins, S. E., Chwala, N., Hsu, S. H., Grow, J., Otto, J. M., & Marlatt, G. A. (2009). Language-based measures of mindfulness: initial validity and clinical utility. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 23, 743–749.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crane, C., Barnhofer, T., Hargus, E., Winder, R., & Amarasinghe, M. (2010). The relationship between mindfulness and conditional goal setting in depressed patients. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 42, 281–290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, R. J. (2010). Empirical explorations of mindfulness: conceptual and methodological conundrums. Emotion, 10, 8–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, K. M., Lau, M. A., & Cairns, D. R. (2009). Development and preliminary validation of a trait version of the Toronto Mindfulness Scale. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 23, 185–197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dobkin, P. L. (2008). Mindfulness-based stress reduction: what processes are at work? Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 14, 8–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Feldman, G. C., Hayes, A. M., Kumar, S. M., Greeson, J. G., & Laurenceau, J. P. (2007). Mindfulness and emotion regulation: the development and initial validation of the cognitive and affective mindfulness scale-revised (CAMS-R). Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 29, 177–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frewen, P. A., Evans, E. M., Maraj, N., Dozois, D. J. A., & Partridge, K. (2008). Letting go: mindfulness and negative automatic thinking. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 32, 758–774.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frewen, P. A., Lundberg, E., MacKinley, J., & Wrath, A. (2011). Assessment of response to mindfulness meditation: mediation breath attention scores in association with subjective measures of state and trait mindfulness and difficulty letting-go of depressive cognition. Mindfulness, 2, 254–269.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein, J. (2002). One dharma: the emerging western Buddhism. New York: Harper San Francisco.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greco, L. A., Baer, R. A., & Smith, G. T. (2011). Assessing mindfulness in children and adolescents: development and validation of the child and adolescent mindfulness measure (camm). Psychological Assessment, 23, 606–614.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grossman, P. (2008). On measuring mindfulness in psychosomatic and psychological research. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 64, 405–408.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grossman, P. (2011). Defining mindfulness by “how poorly I think I pay attention during everyday awareness” and other intractable problems for psychology's (re)invention of mindfulness. Psychological Assessment, 23, 1034–1040.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grossman, P., & van Dam, N. T. (2011). Mindfulness, by any other name…: trials and tribulations of sati in western psychology and science. Contemporary Buddhism, 12, 219–239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grossman, P., Niemann, L., Schmidt, S., & Walach, H. (2004). Mindfulness-based stress reduction and health benefits: a meta-analysis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 57, 35–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gunaratana, B. H. (2002). Mindfulness in plain English. Somerville: Wisdom.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, A. M., & Feldman, G. (2004). Clarifying the construct of mindfulness in the context of emotion regulation and the process of change in therapy. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11, 255–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Höfling, V., Moosbrugger, H., Schermelleh-Engel, K., & Heidenreich, T. (2011). Mindfulness or mindlessness? A modified version of the Mindful Attention and Awareness Scale (MAAS). European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 27(1), 59–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hofmann, S. G., Sawyer, A. T., Witt, A. A., & Oh, D. (2010). The effect of mindfulness-based therapy on anxiety and depression: a meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78, 169–183.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, N. (2007). Self report measures of mindfulness: a review of the literature. Thesis: Pacific University. Common Knowledge; Retrieved from http://commons.pacificu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1145&context=spp.

  • Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living: using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness. New York: Dell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994). Wherever you go, there you are: mindfulness meditation in everyday life. New York: Hyperion.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 144–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kohls, N., Sauer, S., & Walach, H. (2009). Facets of mindfulness—results of an online study investigating the Freiburg mindfulness inventory. Personality and Individual Differences, 46, 224–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Korotitsch, W. J., & Nelson-Gray, R. O. (1999). An overview of self-monitoring research in assessment and treatment. Psychological Assessment, 11, 415–425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lau, M., Bishop, S. R., Segal, Z. V., Buis, T., Anderson, N. D., Carlson, L., Shapiro, S., Carmody, J., Abbey, S., & Devins, G. (2006). The Toronto Mindfulness Scale: development and validation. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62, 1445–1467.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R., & Tate, E. B. (2007). The multi-faceted nature of mindfulness. Psychological Inquiry, 18, 251–255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leigh, J., Bowen, S., & Marlatt, G. A. (2005). Spirituality, mindfulness and substance abuse. Addictive Behaviors, 30, 1335–1341.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Linehan, M. M. (1993). Cognitive behavioral therapy of borderline personality disorder. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacKillop, J., & Anderson, E. J. (2007). Further psychometric validation of the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS). Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 29, 289–293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malinowski, P. (2008). Mindfulness as psychological dimension: concepts and applications. Irish Journal of Psychology, 29, 153–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marlatt, G. A., & Kristeller, J. L. (1999). Mindfulness and meditation. In W. R. Miller (Ed.), Integrating spirituality into treatment (pp. 67–84). Washington: APA.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Michalak, J., Heidenreich, T., Meibert, P., & Schulte, D. (2008). Mindfulness predicts relapse/recurrence in major depressive disorder following MBCT. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 196, 630–633.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neff, K. D. (2003). Development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2, 223–250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rinpoche, S. M. (2005). Ruling your world: ancient strategies for modern life. New York: Morgan Road Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robins, C. J. (2002). Zen principles and mindfulness practice in dialectical behavior therapy. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 9, 50–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosch, E. (2007). More than mindfulness: when you have a tiger by the tail, let it eat you. Psychological Inquiry, 18, 258–264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sahdra, B. K., Shaver, P. R., & Brown, K. W. (2010). A scale to measure nonattachment: a Buddhist complement to Western research on attachment and adaptive functioning. Journal of Personality Assessment, 92, 116–127.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Segal, Z. V., Williams, J. M. G., & Teasdale, J. D. (2002). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression. A new approach to preventing relapse. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, S. L., Carlson, L. E., Astin, J. A., & Freedman, B. (2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62, 373–386.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shields, S. A., Mallory, M. E., & Simon, A. (1989). The body awareness questionnaire: reliability and validity. Journal of Personality Assessment, 53, 802–815.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shigaki, C. L., Glass, B., & Schopp, L. H. (2006). Mindfulness-based stress reduction in medical settings. Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings, 13, 209–216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, G. T., & McCarthy, D. M. (1995). Methodological considerations in the refinement of clinical assessment instruments. Psychological Assessment, 7, 300–308.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, G. T., Fischer, S., & Fister, S. M. (2003). Incremental validity principles in test construction. Psychological Assessment, 15, 467–477.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ströhle, G. (2006). Empirische Erfassung der Achtsamkeit. (Unpublished master’s thesis).Jena: Universität Jena.

  • Teasdale, J. D., Segal, Z. V., & Williams, J. M. G. (1995). How does cognitive therapy prevent relapse and why should attentional control (mindfulness) training help? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 25–39.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Teasdale, J. D., Moore, R. G., Hayhurst, H., Pope, M., Williams, S., & Segal, Z. V. (2002). Metacognitive awareness and prevention of relapse in depression: empirical evidence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 275–287.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, B. L., & Waltz, J. (2007). Everyday mindfulness and mindfulness meditation: overlapping constructs or not? Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 1875–1885.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, B. L., & Waltz, J. (2010). Mindfulness and experiential avoidance as predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder avoidance symptom severity. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24, 409–415.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Dam, N., Earleywine, M., & Danoff-Burg, S. (2009). Differential item function across meditators and non-meditators on the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 516–521.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vujanovic, A. A., Youngwirth, N. E., Johnson, K. A., & Zvolensky, M. J. (2009). Mindfulness-based acceptance and posttraumatic stress symptoms among trauma-exposed adults without axis I psychopathology. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23, 297–303.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walach, H., Buchheld, N., Buttenmüller, V., Kleinknecht, N., & Schmidt, S. (2006). Measuring mindfulness—The Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI). Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 1543–1555.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walker, C. M. (2011). What’s the DIF? Why differential item functioning analyses are an important part of instrument development and validation. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 29, 364–376.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, J. M. G. (2010). Mindfulness and psychological process. Emotion, 10, 1–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, M. J., McManus, F., Muse, K., & Williams, J. M. (2011). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for severe health anxiety (hypochondriasis): an interpretative phenomenological analysis of patients’ experiences. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 50, 379–397.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychotherapy, University Hospital of Psychiatry, University of Bern, Laupenstrasse 49, 3010, Bern, Switzerland

    Claudia Bergomi, Wolfgang Tschacher & Zeno Kupper

Authors
  1. Claudia Bergomi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Wolfgang Tschacher
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Zeno Kupper
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Claudia Bergomi.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bergomi, C., Tschacher, W. & Kupper, Z. The Assessment of Mindfulness with Self-Report Measures: Existing Scales and Open Issues. Mindfulness 4, 191–202 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-012-0110-9

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-012-0110-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation