Abstract
Rainfall-induced shallow landslides and debris flows are one of the most common erosion process and primary channel initiation mechanisms in many steep landscapes. Their initiation conditions are physically controlled by the soil properties and topographically influenced by the competition between area- (A) and slope-dependent (S) sediment transport process. In this work, the A-S relationship of landslides in two forests was compared with respect to the physical properties of soil and plant roots. The results reveal that landslides in the Pinus tabuleaformis forest commonly have larger surface- and contributing area, deeper failure plane and gentler slope gradient than those in the Larix Kaemphferi forest. The saturated hydraulic conductivity in the Pinus tabuleaformis forest is higher and strongly correlates to plant root biomass. The effective cohesion and inner frictional angle of soil mass in the two forests are similar. Faster saturated hydraulic conductivity may lead to the higher upslope contributing area of landslides in the the Pinus tabuleaformis forest. A combination of finite-slope model and precipitation interception model reveals that landslides in the Pinus tabuleaformis forest require higher rainfall amount that those in the Larix Kaemphferi forest. Last but not least, this work provides a clue that strong root network and high saturated hydraulic conductivity may promote the A-S condition.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alessio P (2019) Spatial variability of saturated hydraulic conductivity and measurement-based intensity-duration thresholds for slope stability, Santa Ynez Valley, CA. Geomorphology 342:103–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2019.06.004
Alvioli M, Guzzetti F, Rossi M (2014) Scaling properties of rainfall induced landslides predicted by a physically based model. Geomorphology 213:38–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.12.039
Aubertin GM (1971) Nature and extent of macropores in forest soils and their influence on subsurface water movement. U.S.D.A. Forest Service Research Paper NE-192 1971 Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Upper Darby, Pa. Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture
Balzano B, Tarantino A, Ridley A (2019) Preliminary analysis on the impacts of the rhizosphere on occurrence of rainfall-induced shallow landslides. Landslides 16(10):1885–1901. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-019-01197-5
Bierman P, Montgomery D, Massey C (2013) Key concepts in geomorphology -NSF supports community-based creation of a new style of textbook. AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts 2013: ED23E-01
Buttle JM, House DA (1997) Spatial variability of saturated hydraulic conductivity in shallow macroporous soils in a forested basin. J Hydrol 203(1–4):127–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1694(97)00095-4
Cannon SH, Kirkham RM, Parise M (2001) Wildfire-related debris-flow initiation processes, Storm King Mountain. Colorado Geomorphology 39(3–4):171–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-555X(00)00108-2
Chandler KR, Chappell NA (2008) Influence of individual oak (Quercus robur) trees on saturated hydraulic conductivity[J]. For Ecol Manage 256(5):1222–1229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2008.06.033
Chang K-T, Chiang S-H (2009) An integrated model for predicting rainfall-induced landslides. Geomorphology 105: 366–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2008.10.012
Dietrich WE, Wilson CJ, Montgomery DR, McKean J, Bauer R (1992) Erosion thresholds and land surface morphology. Geology 20:675–679. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1992)020<0675:ETALSM>2.3.CO;2
Fan CC, Tsai MH (2016) Spatial distribution of plant root forces in root-permeated soils subject to shear. Soil and Tillage Research 156:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2015.09.016
Gabet EJ, Dunne T (2002) Landslides on coastal sage-scrub and grassland hillslopes in a severe El Niño winter: the effects of vegetation conversion on sediment delivery. Geol Soc Am Bull 114:983–990. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(2002)114<0983:LOCSSA>2.0.CO;2
Genet M, Stokes A, Salin F, Mickovski SB, Fourcaud T, Dumail J, van Beek R (2005) The influence of cellulose content on tensile strength in tree roots. Plant Soil 278(1):1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-005-8768-6
Ghestem M, Sidle RC, Stokes A (2011) The influence of plant root systems on subsurface flow: implications for slope stability. Bioscience 61:869–879. https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2011.61.11.6
Gonzalez-Ollauri A, Mickovski SB (2017) Hydrological effect of vegetation against rainfall-induced landslides. J Hydrol 549:374–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2017.04.014
Gu C, Mu X, Gao P, Zhao G, Sun W, Tatarko J, Tan X (2019) Influence of vegetation restoration on soil physical properties in the Loess Plateau. China Journal of Soils and Sediments 19(2):716–728. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-018-2083-3
Guo FY, Meng XY, Li ZH, Xie ZT, Chen G, He YF (2015) Characteristics and causes of assembled geo-hazards induced by the rainstorm on 25th July 2013 in Tianshui City, Gansu, China. Mt Res 33(1):100–107 (In Chinese) https://doi.org/10.16089/j.cnki.1008-2786.000014
Guo WZ, Chen ZX, Wang WL, Gao WW, Guo MM, Kang HL (2020) Telling a different story: the promote role of vegetation in the initiation of shallow landslides during rainfall on the Chinese Loess Plateau. Geomorphology 350:106879. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2019.106879
Hao M, Zhang J, Meng M, Chen HY, Guo X, Liu S, Ye L (2019) Impacts of changes in vegetation on saturated hydraulic conductivity of soil in subtropical forests. Sci Rep 9(1):1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-44921-w
Horton P, Jaboyedoff M, Bardou E (2008) Debris flow susceptibility mapping at a regional scale. Proceedings of the 4th Canadian Conference on Geohazards: from causes to management, Presse de l'Université Laval, pp 399–406
Huang S, Cui SL, Xin P, Wang T, Liang CY (2021) Study on rainfall threshold and spatial distribution of clustered shallow landslides in Tianshui City on July 25. Journal of Natural Hazards 30(3):181–191. https://doi.org/10.13577/j.jnd.2021.0320. (In Chinese)
Kang S, Lee SR, N.Vasu N, Park, JY, Lee DH (2017) Development of an initiation criterion for debris flows based on local topographic properties and applicability assessment at a regional scale. Engineering geology 230:64-76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2017.09.017
Kim MS, Onda Y, Uchida T, Kim JK (2016) Effects of soil depth and subsurface flow along the subsurface topography on shallow landslide predictions at the site of a small granitic hillslope. Geomorphology 271:40–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.07.031
Kroes JG, Dam JV, Groenendijk P, Hendriks R, Jacobs C (2009) SWAP version 3.2. Theory description and user manual. Alterra
Lan H, Wang D, He S, Fang Y, Chen W, Zhao P, Qi Y (2020) Experimental study on the effects of tree planting on slope stability. Landslides 17:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-020-01348-z
Larsen MC, Simon A (1993) A rainfall intensity-duration threshold for landslides in a humid-tropical environment, Puerto Rico. Geogr Ann Ser B 75:13–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/04353676.1993.11880379
Lee KT, Ho JY (2009) Prediction of landslide occurrence based on slope-instability analysis and hydrological model simulation. J Hydrol 375:489–497. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2009.06.053
Leung FTY, Yan WM, Hau BCH, Tham LG (2015) Root systems of native shrubs and trees in Hong Kong and their effects on enhancing slope stability. CATENA 125:102–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2014.10.018
Li Y, Wang Y, Ma C, Zhang H, Wang Y, Song S, Zhu J (2016) Influence of the spatial layout of plant roots on slope stability. Ecol Eng 91:477–486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2016.02.026
Li M, Ma C, Du C, Yang W, Lyu L, Wang X (2021) Landslide response to vegetation by example of July 25–26, 2013, extreme rainstorm, Tianshui, Gansu Province, China. Bull Eng Geol Env 80:751–764. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-020-02000-9
Liu C, Wang Y, Ma C, Wang Y, Zhang H, Hu B (2018) Quantifying the effect of non-spatial and spatial forest stand structure on rainfall partitioning in mountain forests. Southern China the Forestry Chronicle 94(2):162–172. https://doi.org/10.5558/tfc2018-025
Mazzuoli M, Bovolenta R, Berardi R (2016) Experimental investigation on the mechanical contribution of roots to the shear strength of a sandy soil. Procedia Engineering 158: 45–50.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2016.08.403
McGuire LA, Rengers FK, Kean JW, Coe JA, Mirus BB, Baum RL, Godt JW (2016) Elucidating the role of vegetation in the initiation of rainfall-induced shallow landslides: Insights from an extreme rainfall event in the Colorado Front Range. Geophys Res Lett 43:9084–9092. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL070741
Milledge DG, Bellugi D, McKean JA, Densmore AL, Dietrich WE (2014) A multidimensional stability model for predicting shallow landslide size and shape across landscapes. J Geophys Res Earth Surf 119:2481–2504. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JF003135
Montgomery DR, Dietrich WE (1988) Where do channels begin?. Nature 336: 232–234. https://doi.org/10.1038/336232a0
Montgomery DR, Dietrich WE (1992) Channel initiation and the problem of landscape scale. Science 255:826–830. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.255.5046.826
Montgomery DR, Dietrich WE (1994) A physically based model for the topographic control on shallow landsliding. Water Resour Res 30:1153–1171. https://doi.org/10.1029/93WR02979
Moos C, Bebi P, Graf F, Mattli J, Rickli C, Schwarz M (2016) How does forest structure affect root reinforcement and susceptibility to shallow landslides? Earth Surf Proc Land 41:951–960. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3887
Niemeyer RJ, Fremier AK, Heinse R, Chávez W, DeClerck FA (2014) Woody vegetation increases saturated hydraulic conductivity in dry tropical Nicaragua. Vadose Zone Journal 13(1):1–11. https://doi.org/10.2136/vzj2013.01.0025
Norris J E, Stokes A, Mickovski S B, Cammeraat E, Van Beek R, Nicoll B C, Achim A (2008) Slope stability and erosion control: ecotechnological solutions. Springer Science & Business Media
O'loughlin EM (1986) Prediction of surface saturation zones in natural catchments by topographic analysis. Water Resources Research 22: 794-804. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR022i005p00794
Park DW, Lee SR, Vasu NN, Kang S, Park JY (2016) Coupled model for simulation of landslides and debris flows at local scale. Nat Hazards 81:1653–1682. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-016-2150-2
Peres D, Cancelliere A (2014) Derivation and evaluation of landslide-triggering thresholds by a Monte Carlo approach. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 18:4913–4931. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-18-4913-2014
Preti F (2006) On root reinforcement modeling. European Geosciences Union 2006. Geophysical Research Abstracts 8:04555
Pierson T (1983) Soil pipes and slope stability. Q J Eng GeolHydrogeol 16:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.QJEG.1983.016.01.01
Pollen N (2007) Temporal and spatial variability in root reinforcement of streambanks: accounting for soil shear strength and moisture. CATENA 69:197–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2006.05.004
Ran Q, Hong Y, Li W, Gao J (2018) A modelling study of rainfall-induced shallow landslide mechanisms under different rainfall characteristics. J Hydrol 563:790–801. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.06.040
Reneau S, Dietrich WE (1987) Size and location of colluvial landslides in a steep forested landscape. IAHS-AISH publication: 39–48
Rickenmann D, Zimmermann M (1993) The 1987 debris flows in Switzerland: documentation and analysis. Geomorphology 8(2–3):175–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-555X(93)90036-2
Roering JJ, Schmidt KM, Stock JD, Dietrich WE, Montgomery DR (2003) Shallow landsliding, root reinforcement, and the spatial distribution of trees in the Oregon Coast Range. Can Geotech J 40:237–253. https://doi.org/10.1139/t02-113
Saito H, Murakami W, Daimaru H, Oguchi T (2017) Effect of forest clear-cutting on landslide occurrences: analysis of rainfall thresholds at Mt. Ichifusa. Japan Geomorphology 276:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.09.024
Schmidt KM, Roering JJ, Stock JD, Dietrich WE, Montgomery DR, Schaub T (2001) The variability of root cohesion as an influence on shallow landslide susceptibility in the Oregon Coast Range. Revue Canadienne De Géotechnique 38:995–1024(1030). https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-38-5-995
Schwarz M, Cohen D, Or D (2010) Root-soil mechanical interactions during pullout and failure of root bundles. Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface 115(F4). https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JF001603
Sidle RC, Ziegler AD (2017) The canopy interception–landslide initiation conundrum: insight from a tropical secondary forest in northern Thailand. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 21(1):651–667. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009jf001603
Simon A, Collison AJ (2002) Quantifying the mechanical and hydrologic effects of riparian vegetation on streambank stability. Earth Surf Proc Land 27:527–546. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.325
Sharma RH (2015) Laboratory experiments on the influence of soil pipes on slope failure. Landslides 12:345–353. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-014-0479-8
Staley DM, Wasklewicz TA, Kean JW (2014) Characterizing the primary material sources and dominant erosional processes for post-fire debris-flow initiation in a headwater basin using multi-temporal terrestrial laser scanning data. Geomorphology 214:324–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.02.015
Stock J, Dietrich WE (2003) Valley incision by debris flows: evidence of a topographic signature. Water Resources Research 39(4). https://doi.org/10.1029/2001WR001057
Stock JD, Dietrich WE (2006) Erosion of steepland valleys by debris flows. Geol Soc Am Bull 118:1125–1148. https://doi.org/10.1130/B25902.1
Stokes A, Atger C, Bengough AG, Fourcaud T, Sidle RC (2009) Desirable plant root traits for protecting natural and engineered slopes against landslides. Plant Soil 324(1):1–30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-009-0159-y
Uchida T (2004) Clarifying the role of pipe flow on shallow landslide initiation. Hydrology Process 18:375–378. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.5214
Vannoppen W, Poesen J, Peeters P, De Baets S, Vandevoorde B (2016) Root properties of vegetation communities and their impact on the erosion resistance of river dikes. Earth Surf Proc Land 41(14):2038–2046. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3970
Wang X, Ma C, Wang Y, Wang Y, Li T, Dai Z, Li M (2020) Effect of root architecture on rainfall threshold for slope stability: variabilities in saturated hydraulic conductivity and strength of root-soil composite. Landslides 17:1965–1977. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-020-01422-6
Wei Y, Wu X, Cai C (2015) Splash erosion of clay–sand mixtures and its relationship with soil physical properties: the effects of particle size distribution on soil structure. CATENA 135:254–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2015.08.003
White MA, Thornton PE, Running SW, Nemani RR (2000) Parameterization and sensitivity analysis of the BIOME–BGC Terrestrial Ecosystem Model: net primary production controls. Earth Interact 4:1–85. https://doi.org/10.1175/1087-3562(2000)0042.0.CO;2
Wilson RC (1986) Estimating rainfall required to initiation debris flows. Association of engineering geologists, 29th Annual meeting, San Francisco, CA, United States, Oct. 5–10. 1986, 29:69
Wilson RC, Wieczorek GF (1995) Rainfall thresholds for the initiation of debris flows at La Honda. California Environmental & Engineering Geoscience 1(1):11–27. https://doi.org/10.2113/gseegeosci.I.1.11
Wilson RC (1997) Normalizing rainfall/debris-flow thresholds along the U.S. Pacific coast for long-term variations in precipitation climate. In: Chen CL (ed) Proc. 1st Int. Conf. on Debris-Flow Hazard Mitigation. San Francisco: American Society of Civil Engineers, pp 32–43
Wu TH, McKinnell III WP, Swanston DN (1979) Strength of tree roots and landslides on Prince of Wales Island, Alaska. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 16:19–33. https://doi.org/10.1139/t79-003
Yang D, Yang H, Lei H (2014) Watershed hydrology. Tsinghua University Press, Beijing (in Chinese)
Yang H, Yang T, Zhang S, Zhao F, Hu K Jiang Y (2020) Rainfall-induced landslides and debris flows in Mengdong Town, Yunnan Province, China. Landslides 17:931-941. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-019-01336-y
Yee CS, Harr RD (1977) Influence of soil aggregation on slope stability in the Oregon Coast Ranges. Environmental Geology 1:367–377. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02380505
Yu GQ, Zhang MS, Hu W (2014) Analysis on the development characteristics and hydrodynamic conditions for massive debris flow in Tianshui. Northwest Geol 47(3):185–192 (in Chinese). https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1009-6248.2014.03.024
Zhang C B, Chen L H, Jiang J (2014) Why fine tree roots are stronger than thicker roots: the role of cellulose and lignin in relation to slope stability. Geomorphology 206:196–202.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.09.024
Zhang SJ, Xu CX, Wei FQ, Hu K, Xu H, Zhao L, Zhang G (2019a) A physics-based model to derive rainfall intensity-duration threshold for debris flow. Geomorphology 351:106930. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2019.106930
Zhang Y, Chen N, Liu M, Wang T, Deng M, Wu K, Khanal BR (2019b) Debris flows originating from colluvium deposits in hollow regions during a heavy storm process in Taining, southeastern China. Landslides 17:335–347. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-019-01272-x
Funding
This study was supported by the Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program (Grant No. 2019QZKK0902), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (Grant No. 2018BLCB03), and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 41702369).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
The authors acknowledge the contribution works of team members in the co-author list.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Dai, Z., Ma, C., Miao, L. et al. Initiation conditions of shallow landslides in two man-made forests and back estimation of the possible rainfall threshold. Landslides 19, 1031–1044 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-021-01823-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-021-01823-1