Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Mealybugs

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Polyphagous Pests of Crops

Abstract

The mealybugs are soft-bodied sap-sucking insect pests catalogued under the group of scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) with the worldwide distribution of about 2000 species. Often, mealybugs are mistaken as woolly aphids, cotton cushion scale and even some whiteflies and small scales owing to their waxy coat, producing honeydew accompanied with sooty mould. They are called as mealybugs because of the mealy wax secretion all around their bodies. Mealybugs are serious insect pests of diverse cropping systems the world over with over 160 species of mealybugs being labelled as crop pests. These pests are often considered as global invasive pests on account of their wider distribution and quick spread and due to their polyphagous status. Mealybugs are phloem feeders, and the characteristic leaf-curling damage by them might be the result of calcium extraction linked to pectin degradation by salivary pectin esterases. Many of the mealybug pests also act as vectors for various virus diseases. They are hard to be controlled by insecticides due to its morphological, structural and behavioural adaptability with the tendency to aggregate and settle themselves in cracks or crevices in tree barks, under the leaf sheath, under fruit sepals, etc. The female individuals of various mealybug species are found to release pheromone through abdominal scent glands to attract the males for mating, and this phenomenon has been exploited to develop sex pheromones for monitoring and control. Herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPVs) play a significant role in attracting natural enemies of mealybug, and the same could be exploited for conservative biological control. Mealybugs are also successfully used as biocontrol agents for controlling weeds.

This chapter provides a holistic description of biological attributes and life cycle details of key mealybug pests, their taxonomy and phylogeny, physiology of mealybug feeding, an overview of different strategies available for controlling mealybug pests, biological control of mealybugs and use of semiochemicals in the management of mealybugs.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 219.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 279.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 279.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abbas G, Arif MJ, Saeed S (2005) Systematic status of a new species of genus Phenacoccus cockerell (Pseudococcidae) a serious pest of cotton Gossypium hirsutum L. in Pakistan. Pak Entomol 27(1):83–84

    Google Scholar 

  • Abbas G, Arif MJ, Saeed S, Karar H (2008) Increasing menace of a new mealybug, Phenacoccus gossypiphilous, to the economic crops of southern Asia. In: Branco M, Franco JC, Hodgson CJ (eds) Proceedings of the XI international symposium on scale insect studies, Oeiras, Portugal, 24–27 September 2007. ISA Press, Lisbon, 322 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Abbas G, Arif MJ, Saeed S, Karar H (2009) A new invasive species of genus Phenacoccus cockerell attacking cotton in Pakistan. Int J Agric Biol 11(1):54–58

    Google Scholar 

  • Ahmadi M, Amir-Beshalli B, Hossssieni SZ (2012) Evaluating the effect of some botanical insecticides on the citrus mealybug Planococcus citri (Risso) (Hemiptera; Pseudococcidae). Afr J Biotechnol 11:11620–11624

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alam MZ, Alam MS, Karim ANM (1979) Rice mealy bug outbreak in Bangladesh. Int Rice Res Newsl 4(5):20

    Google Scholar 

  • AliNiazee MT, Stafford EM (1972) Control of the grape mealybug on ‘Thompson Seedless’ grapes in California. J Econ Entomol 65(6):1744

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ambethgar V (2011) Field evaluation of some insecticides against white-tailed mealybug, Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell) infesting cashew. In: Souvenir and abstract of the international symposium on Cashew, 09–12 December 2011, Madurai, India, pp 131–132

    Google Scholar 

  • Arai T, Sugie H, Hiradate S, Kuwahara S, Itagaki N, Nakahata T (2003) Identification of a sex pheromone component of Pseudococcus cryptus. J Chem Ecol 29(10):2213–2223

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arif MI, Rafiq M, Ghaffar A (2009) Host plants of cotton mealybug (Phenacoccus solenopsis): a new menace to cotton agroecosystem of Punjab, Pakistan. Int J Agric Biol 11(2):163–167

    Google Scholar 

  • Asha T, Ramamurthy VV (2008) On the problems in diagnostics of cotton mealybug Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). Entomon 33(4):277–282

    Google Scholar 

  • Awadallah KT, Ammar ED, Tawafik MFS, Rashad A (1979) Life history of the white mealybug Ferrisia virgata (Ckll.) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Zeitschrift für Deutsche Entomologen 26:101–110

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ayyar TVR (1939) The rice mealy bug in South India. J Mysore Agric Exp Union 17:179–188

    Google Scholar 

  • Backialakshmi T (1994) Varietal resistance to and damage potential of rice mealy bug, Brevennia rehi (Lindinger) (Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera). MSc (Ag.) Thesis, AC & RI, Killikulam

    Google Scholar 

  • Bahder BW, Naidu RA, Daane KM, Millar, J. G.& Walsh, D. B. (2013) Pheromone-based monitoring of Pseudococcus maritimus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) populations in concord grape vineyards. J Econ Entomol 106(1):482–490

    Google Scholar 

  • Banu JG, Suruliveru T, Amutha M, Gapalakrishnan N (2010) Susceptibility of cotton mealy bug, Paracoccus marginatus to entomopathogenic fungi. Ann Plant Prot Sci 18(1):247–248

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumann P (2005) Biology of bacteriocyte-associated endosymbionts of plant sap-sucking insects. Ann Rev Microbiol 59:155–189

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Dov Y (2006) Scales in a family/genus query. Available at http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/calecgi/chklist.exe?Family=Pseudococcidae&genus=. Accessed 14 Aug 2008

  • Bentley WJ, Varela LG, Zalom F, Smith RJ, Purcell AH, Phillips PA, Haviland DR, Daane KM, Battany MC (2008) Grape: pest management guidelines. University of California IPM Pest Management Guidelines: Grapes, Insects and Mites Publication 3448. University of California Press, Berkeley

    Google Scholar 

  • Bertschy C, Turlings TCJ, Bellotti AC, Dorn S (1997) Chemically-mediated attraction of three parasitoid species to mealybug-infested cassava leaves. Fla Entomol 80(3):1–14

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bertschy C, Turlings T, Bellotti A, Dorn S (2001) The role of mealybug-induced cassava plant volatiles in the attraction of the encyrtid parasitoids Aenasius vexans and Apoanagyrus diversicornis. J Insect Behav 14(3):363–371

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhat AI, Devasahayam S, Sarma YR, Pant RP (2003) Association of a badnavirus in black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) transmitted by mealybug (Ferrisia virgata) in India. Curr Sci 84(12):1547–1550

    Google Scholar 

  • Bierl-Leonhardt BA, Moreno DS, Schwarz M, Forster HS, Plimmer JR, DeVilbiss ED (1980) Identification of the pheromone of the Comstock mealybug. Life Sci 27(5):399–402

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bierl-Leonhardt BA, Moreno DS, Schwarz M, Fargerlund J, Plimmer JR (1981) Isolation, identification and synthesis of the sex pheromone of the citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri (Risso). Tetrahedron Lett 22:389–392

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blumberg D, Ben-Dov Y, Mendel Z (1999) The citriculus mealybug, Pseudococcus cryptus Hempel, and its natural enemies in Israel: history and present situation. Entomologica-Bari 33:233–242

    Google Scholar 

  • Bushra S, Sarfraz Ali S, Hafiz AA (2014) Resistance in mealybug Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) in Pakistan to selected organophosphates and pyrethroids insecticides. Crop Prot 66:29–33

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calatayud PA, Auger J, Thibout E, Rousset S, Caicedo AM, Calatayud S, Buschmann H, Guillaud J, Mandon N, Bellotti AC (2001) Identification and synthesis of a kairomone mediating host location by two parasitoid species of the cassava mealybug, Phenacoccus herreni. J Chem Ecol 27(11):2203–2217

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castle SJ, Henneberry TJ, Prabhaker N, Toscano NC (1996) Trends in relative susceptibilities of white flies to insecticides through the cotton season in the Imperial Valley, CA. Proc. Beltwide Cotton Conference 2:1032–1035

    Google Scholar 

  • Chacko MJ, Bhat PK (1976) Record of Ferrisia virgata and its natural enemy, Spalgis epius, on coffee in India. J Coffee Res 6(2):56–57

    Google Scholar 

  • Charles JG (1993) A survey of mealybugs and their natural enemies in horticultural crops in North Island, New Zealand, with implications for biological control. Biocontrol Sci Tech 3:405–418

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Charles JG (1996) Mealybug resistance management strategy. In: Bourdot GW, Suckling DM (eds) Pesticide resistance: prevention & management. New Zealand Plant Protection Society, Lincoln, pp 172–176

    Google Scholar 

  • Charles JG (2004) Mealybug insecticide resistance management strategy. http://resistance.nzpps.org/index.php?p=insecticides/mealybug

  • Charles JG, Bell VA, Hall AJ, Suckling DM, Walker JT, Cole LM, Peter W, Shaw D, Wallis R, Jocelyn G, Millar JG (2015) Evaluation of the synthetic sex pheromone of the obscure mealybug, Pseudococcus viburni, as an attractant to conspecific males, and to females of the parasitoid Acerophagus maculipennis. Entomol Exp Appl 157(2):188–197

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cloyd RA (2003) Effect of insect growth regulators on citrus mealybug [Planococcus citri (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae)] egg production. Hortic Sci 38(7):1397–1399

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cocco A, Lentini A, Serra G (2014) Mating disruption of Planococcus ficus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in vineyards using reservoir pheromone dispensers. J Insect Sci 14(1):1–8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cockerell TDA (1902) Two new mealy-bugs from New Mexico. Can Entomol 34:315–316

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cox JM, Pearce MJ (1983) Wax produced by dermal pores in three species of mealybug (Homoptera, Pseudococcidae). Int J Insect Morphol Embryol 12:235–248

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daane KM, Bentley WJ, Walton VM, Malakar-Kuenen R, Millar JG, Ingels CA, Weber EA, Gispert C (2006) New controls investigated for vine mealybug. Calif Agric 60:31–38

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daane KM, Bentley WJ, Millar JG, Walton VM, Cooper ML, Biscay P, Yokota GY (2008a) Integrated management of mealybugs in California vineyards. Acta Hortic 785:235–252

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daane KM, Cooper ML, Triapitsyn SV, Walton VM, Yokota GY, Haviland DR, Bentley WJ, Godfrey KE, Wunderlich LR (2008b) Vineyard managers and researchers seek sustainable solutions for mealybugs, a changing pest complex. Calif Agric 62:167–176

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Souza JC, Reis PR, Ribeiro JA, Santa Cecília LVC, Silva RA (2007) Chemical control of the coffee root mealybug Dysmicoccus texensis (Tinsley, 1900) in coffee plants (Coffea arabica L). Coffee Sci 2:29–37

    Google Scholar 

  • Denholm I, Cahill M, Byrne FJ, Devonshire AL (1996) Progress with documenting and combating insecticide resistance in Bemisia. In: Gerling D, Mayer RT (eds) Bemisia 1995: Taxonomy, biology, damage, control and management. Intercept Ltd., Andover/Hants, pp 577–603

    Google Scholar 

  • Deshpande V (2009) Mealybug species, the Bt cotton killer, is exotic: expert. Central Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur. Accessed Indian Express.com 11 July 2009

    Google Scholar 

  • Dhawan AK, Singh K, Aneja A, Saini S (2009) Distribution of mealy bug, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley in cotton with relation to weather factors in South-Western districts of Punjab. J Entomol Res 33(1):59–63

    Google Scholar 

  • Dongo LN, Orisajo SB (2007) Status of cocoa swollen shoot virus disease in Nigeria. Afr J Biotechnol 6:2054–2061

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Downie DA, Gullan PJ (2004) Phylogenetic analysis of mealybugs (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae) based on DNA sequences from three nuclear genes, and a review of the higher classification. Syst Entomol 29:238–260

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elbert A, Nauen R (2004) New applications for neonicotinoid insecticides using imidacloprid as an example. In: Horowitz AR, Ishaaya I (eds) Insect pest management, field and protected crops. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg/New York, pp 29–44

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • El-Sayed AM, Unelius CR, Twidle A, Mitchell V, Manning L, Cole L, Suckling DM, Flores MF, Zaviezo T, Bergmann J (2010) Chrysanthemyl 2-acetoxy-3-methylbutanoate: the sex pheromone of the citrophilous mealybug, Pseudococcus calceolariae. Tetrahedron Lett 51(7):1075–1078

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fernald ME (1903) A catalogue of the coccidae of the World. Massachusettus Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin, 88

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferris GF (1950) Atlas of the scale insects of North America. (ser. 5): The Pseudococcidae (Part I). Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, 278 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Figadere BA, McElfresh JS, Borchardt D, Daane KM, Bentley W, Millar JG (2007) trans-α-Necrodylisobutyrate, the sex pheromone of the grape mealybug, Pseudococcus maritimus. Tetrahedron Lett 48(48):8434–8437

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Foldi I (1983) Structure and functions of the integumentary glands of mealybugs Pseudococcidae and of their secretions. Annales de la Société Entomologique de France 19:155–166

    Google Scholar 

  • Franco JC, Suma P, da Silva EB, Blumberg D, Mendel Z (2004) Management strategies of mealybug pests of citrus in Mediterranean countries. Phytoparasitica 32:507–522

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Franco JC, Silva EB, Cortegano E, Campos L, Branco M, Zada A, Mendel Z (2008) Kairomonal response of the parasitoid Anagyrus spec.nov.near pseudococci to the sex pheromone of the vine mealybug. Entomol Exp Appl 126(2):122–130

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Franco JC, Zada A, Mendel Z (2009) Novel approaches for the management of mealybug pests. In: Biorational control of arthropod pests. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 233–278

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Franco JC, Da Silva EB, Fortuna T, Cortegano E, Branco M, Suma P, La Torre I, Russo A, Elyahu M, Protasov A, Levi-Zada A (2011) Vine mealybug sex pheromone increases citrus mealybug parasitism by Anagyrus sp. near pseudococci (Girault). Biol Control 58(3):230–238

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fuchs TW, Stewart JW, Minzenmayer R, Rose M (1991) First record of Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley in cultivated cotton in the United States. Southwestern Entomol 16(3):215–221

    Google Scholar 

  • Ganjisaffar F, Andreason SA, Perring TM (2019) Lethal and Sub-Lethal Effects of Insecticides on the Pink Hibiscus Mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). Insects 10(1):31

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Georghiou GP, Taylor CE (1986) Factors influencing the evolution of resistance. In: National Research Council Pesticide resistance: strategies and tactics for management. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, pp 157–169

    Google Scholar 

  • Ghose SK, Paul PK (1972) Observations on the biology of the mealybug, Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell) (Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera). Proceedings of the Zoological Society (Calcutta) 25:39–48

    Google Scholar 

  • Gonzalez RH, Jorge PG, Gerardo-Barria P (2001) The tree fruit mealybug in Chile, Pseudococcus viburni (Signoret), (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). The Revista Brasileira de Fruticultura 22:17–26

    Google Scholar 

  • Gould WF, McGuire RG (2000) Hot water treatment and insecticidal coatings for disinfesting limes of mealybugs. J Stored Prod Res 93:1017–1020

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grout TG, Stephen P (2005) Use of an inexpensive technique to compare systemic insecticides applied through drip irrigation systems in citrus. Afr Entomol 13:353–358

    Google Scholar 

  • Gullan PC, Kosztarab M (1997) Adaptations in scale insects. Annu Rev Entomol 42(1):23–50

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gullan PC, Martin JH (2003) Sternorrhyncha (jumping plant lice, whiteflies, aphids, and scale insects). In: Resh VH, Carde RT (eds) Encyclopedia of insects. Academic, Amsterdam, pp 957–967

    Google Scholar 

  • Gutierrez AP, Daane KM, Ponti L, Walton VM, Ellis CK (2008) Prospective evaluation of the biological control of vine mealybug: refuge effects and climate. J Appl Ecol 45:524–536

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hall DG, Roda A, Lapointe SL, Hibbard K (2008) Phenology of Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in Florida based on attraction of adult males to pheromone traps. Fla Entomol 91:305–310

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hardy NB, Gullan PJ, Hodgson CJ (2008) A subfamily-level classification of mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) based on integrated molecular and morphological data. Syst Entomol 33(1):51–71

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayat M (2009) Description of a new species of Aenasius Walker (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), parasitoid of the mealybug, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) in India. Biosystematica 3:21–26

    Google Scholar 

  • Heinrichs EA (1983) Status of screening for resistance to the thrips, caseworm, leaf folder, rice bugs and mealy bug. In: International rice research conference, April 18–22, 1983. IRRI, Manila

    Google Scholar 

  • Herren HR, Neuenschwander P, Hennessey RD, Hammond WNO (1987) Introduction and dispersal of Epidinocarsis lopezi (Hym., Encyrtidae), an exotic parasitoid of the cassava mealybug, Phenacoccus manihoti (Hom., Pseudococcidae), in Africa. Agric Ecosyst Environ 19(2):131–144

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hinkens DM, McElfresh JS, Millar JG (2001) Identification and synthesis of the sex pheromone of the vine mealybug, Planococcus ficus. Tetrahedron Lett 42:1619–1622

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ho CT, Khoo KC (1997) Partners in biological control of cocoa pests: Mutualism between Dolichoderus thoracicus (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and Cataenococcus hispidus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). Bull Entomol Res 87:461–470

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ho HY, Hung CC, Chuang TH, Wang WL (2007) Identification and synthesis of the sex pheromone of the passion vine mealybug, Planococcus minor (Maskell). J Chem Ecol 33:1986–1996

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ho HY, Su YT, Ko CH, Tsai MY (2009) Identification and synthesis of the sex pheromone of the Madeira mealybug, Phenacoccus madeirensis Green. J Chem Ecol 35:724–732

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hodgson CJ, Abbas G, Arif MJ, Saeed S, Karar H (2008) Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae), an invasive mealybug damaging cotton in Pakistan and India, with a discussion on seasonal morphological variation. Zootaxa 19(13):1–35

    Google Scholar 

  • Horowitz R, Kontsedalov S, Denholm I, Ishaaya I (2002) Dynamics of insecticide resistance in Bemisia tabaci: a case study with the insect growth regulator pyriproxyfen. Pest Manag Sci 58:1096–1100

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Irulandi S, Kumar PKV, Seetharama HG, Sreedharan K (2001) Bioefficacy of neem formulations alone and in combination with synthetic insecticide against mealybug, Planococcus citri (Risso) on Coffea. J Coffee Res 29:56–60

    Google Scholar 

  • Jayarani S (1992) Genetic evaluation for mealy bug, Brevennia rehi (Lindinger) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) resistance in rice varieties. MSc (Ag.) thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore

    Google Scholar 

  • Jonathan EI, Karuppuchamy P, Kalyanasundaram M, Suresh S, Mahalingam CA (2011) Status of papaya mealybug in Tamil Nadu and its management. In: Proceedings of the National consulation meeting on strategies for deployment and impact of the imported parasitoids of papaya mealybug, Classical biological control of papaya mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus) in India, pp 24–33

    Google Scholar 

  • Kairo MTK, Pollard GV, Peterkin DD, Lopez VF (2000) Biological control of the hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) (Hemiptera; Pseudococcidae) in the Caribbean. Integr Pest Manag Rev 5:241–254

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karar H, Arif MJ, Arshad M, Ali A, Abbas Q (2015) Resistance/ susceptibility of different mango cultivars against mango mealybug (Drosicha mangiferae G.). Pak J Agric Sci 52(2):367–377

    Google Scholar 

  • Karlson P, Luscher M (1959) ‘Pheromones’: a new term for a class of biologically active substances. Nature 183:55–56

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kawai S (1980) Scale insects of Japan in colors. Zenkoku Noson Kyoiku Kyoukai, Tokyo, pp 105–106

    Google Scholar 

  • Khan AAH, Shad SA, Akram W (2013) Resistance to conventional insecticides in Pakistani populations of Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae): a potential ectoparasite of dairy animals. Ecotoxicology 22:522–527

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kono M, Koga R, Shimada M, Fukatsu T (2008) Infection dynamics of coexisting beta- and gamma-proteobacteria in the nested endosymbiotic system of mealybugs. Appl Environ Microbiol 74:4175–4184

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kosztarab M, Kozar F (1988) Scale insects of Central Europe. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, Dordrecht

    Google Scholar 

  • Krishnan JU, George M, Ajesh G, Jithine JR, Lekshmi NR, Deepasree MI (2016) A review on Paracoccus marginatus Williams, papaya mealybug (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). J Entomol Zool Stud 4(1):528–533

    Google Scholar 

  • Kurdyukov VV, Alan MN (1973) Damage caused by citrus mealy bug Pseudococcus citri on grapevine and its chemical control. Zash Rast 26:26–30

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • La Notte P, Buzkan N, Choueiri E, Minafra A, Martelli GP (1997) Acquisition and transmission of grapevine virus by the mealybug Pseudococcus longispinus. J Plant Pathol 78:79–85

    Google Scholar 

  • Le Ru B, Makosso JM (2001) Prey habitat location by the cassava mealybug predator Exochomus flaviventris: olfactory responses to odor of plant, mealybug, plant–mealybug complex, and plant–mealybug–natural enemy complex. J Insect Behav 14(5):557–572

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Le Ru B, Tertuliano M (1993) Tolerance of different host-plants to the cassava mealybug Phenacoccus manihoti Matile-Ferrero (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Int J Pest Manag 39(4):379–384

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levi-Zada A, Steiner S, Fefer D, Kaspi R (2019) Identification of the sex pheromone of the spherical mealybug Nipaecoccus viridis. J Chem Ecol 45(5–6):455–463

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lockhart BEL, Autrey JC (1988) Occurrence in sugarcane of a bacilliform virus related serologically to banana streak virus. Plant Dis 72:230–233

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lockhart BEL, Olszewski NE (1993) Serological and genomic heterogeneity of banana streak badnavirus: implications for virus detection in Musa germplasm. In: Proceedings of international symposium on genetic improvement of bananas for resistance to diseases and pests, Montpellier (FRA), pp 105–113

    Google Scholar 

  • Lockhart BEL, Autrey LJC, Comstock JC (1992) Partial purification and serology of sugarcane mild mosaic virus, a mealybug transmitted clostero like virus. Phytopathology 82:691–695

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lockhart BEL, Kiratiya-Angul K, Jones P, Eng L, De Silva P, Olszewski NE, Deema N, Sangalang J (1997) Identification of Piper yellow mottle virus, a mealybug transmitted badnavirus infecting Piper spp. in Southeast Asia. Eur J Plant Pathol 103:303–311

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mallet J (1989) The evolution of insecticide resistance: have the insects won? Trends Ecol Evol 4(11):336–340

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mallikarjuna Rao P (1987) Further studies on rice mealy bug, Brevennia rehi (Lindinger) (Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera). MSc (Ag.) thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore

    Google Scholar 

  • Mani M, Shivaraju C (2016) Mealybugs and their management in agricultural and horticultural crops. Springer, Berlin

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Mani M, Krishnamoorthy A, Singh SP (1990) The impact of the predator, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant, on pesticide-resistant populations of the striped mealybug, Ferrisia virgata (Ckll.) on guava in India. Int J Trop Insect Sci 11(2):167–170

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mansour R, Suma P, Mazzeo G, Russo A, Lebdi KG, Buonocore E (2010) Using a kairomone-based attracting system to enhance biological control of mealy bugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) by Anagyrus sp. near pseudococci (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) in Sicilian vineyards. J Entomol Acarol Res 42(3):161–170

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mastoi MI, Azura AN, Muhamad R, Idris AB, Solangi BK, Arfan AG, Bhatti MI, Khoso FN (2015) A report of natural enemies of papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in Peninsular Malaysia. Sci Int (Lahore) 28(1):371–374

    Google Scholar 

  • McKenzie HL (1967) Mealybugs of California: with taxonomy, biology, and control of North American species (Homoptera, Coccoidea, Pseudococcidae). University of California Press, Berkeley

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer JB, Kasdorf GGF, Nel LH, Pietersen G (2008) Transmission of activated-episomal banana streak OL (badna) virus (BSOLV) to cv. Williams banana (Musa sp.) by three mealybug species. Plant Dis 92(8):1158–1163

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyerdirk DE, Kauffman WC (2001) Status on the development of a biological control program for Paracoccus marginatus Williams, papaya mealybug, in the Caribbean. In: IV International Scientific Seminar of Plant Health. Veradero, Cuba

    Google Scholar 

  • Michelbacher AE, Swift JE, Davis CS, Hall DH, Raabe RD (1959) Ridding the garden of common pests. Calif Agric Expt Sta Ext Servo Circ 479:30–31

    Google Scholar 

  • Millar JG (2008) Stereospecific synthesis of the sex pheromone of the passion vine mealybug, Planococcus minor. Tetrahedron Lett 49(2):315–317

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Millar JG, Daane KM, McElfresh JS, Moreira JA, Malakar-Kuenen R, Guillen M, Bentley WJ (2002) Development and optimization of methods for using sex pheromone for monitoring the mealybug, Planococcus ficus (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) in California vineyards. J Econ Entomol 95:706–714

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Millar JG, Midland SL, McElfresh JS, Daane KM (2005) (2, 3, 4, 4-Tetramethylcyclopentyl) methyl acetate, a sex pheromone from the obscure mealybug: first example of a new structural class of monoterpenes. J Chem Ecol 31(12):2999–3005

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Millar JG, Moreira JA, McElfresh JS, Daane KM, Freund AS (2009) Sex pheromone of the longtailed mealybug: a new class of monoterpene structure. Org Lett 11(12):2683–2685

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller DR, Kosztarab M (1979) Recent advances in the study of scale insects. Annu Rev Entomol 24:1–27

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mittler TE, Douglas AE (2003) Honeydew. In: Resh VH, Carde RT (eds) Encyclopedia of insects. Academic, Amsterdam, p 54

    Google Scholar 

  • Moreno DS, Fargerlund J, Shaw JG (1976) California red scale: development of a method for testing juvenoids. J Econ Entomol 69(2):292–297

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Muniappan R (2009) A parasitoid to tackle the menace of the mealybug pest of cotton in India. IAPPS Newsletter. p 12

    Google Scholar 

  • Muniappan R, Shepard BM, Watson GW, Carner GR, Sartiami D, Rauf A, Hammig MD (2008) First report of the papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), in Indonesia and India. J Agric Urban Entomol 25(1):37–40

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muthukrishnan N, Manoharan T, Thevan PST, Anbu S (2005) Evaluation of buprofezin for the management of grape mealy bug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green). J Entomol Res 29:339–344

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nakat RV, Pokharkar DS, Dhane AS, Tamboli ND (2011) Biological impact of Acerophagus papayae (N & S) on suppression of papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus (W & G) in Pune region of Maharashtra. In: Proceedings of the National consultation meeting on strategies for deployment and impact of the imported parasitoids of papaya mealybug, Classical biological control of papaya mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus) in India, pp 79–81

    Google Scholar 

  • Negishi T, Uchida M, Tamaki Y, Mori K, Ishiwatari T, Asano S, Nakagawa K (1980) Sex pheromone of the Comstock mealybug, Pseudococcus comstocki Kuwana: isolation and identification. Appl Entomol Zool 15(3):328–333

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pantoja A, Abreu E, Pena J, Robles W (2007) Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) affecting papaya in Puerto Rico. J Agric Univ Puerto Rico 91(3/4):223–225

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pascual Villalobos MJ, Robledo A (1998) Screening for anti-insect activity in Mediterranean plants. Ind Crop Prod 8(3):183–194

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Patel HP, Patel AD, Bhatt NA (2009) Record of coccinellids predating on mealy bug, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) in Gujarat. Insect Environ 14:179–181

    Google Scholar 

  • Poorani J (2004) An annotated checklist of the Coccinellidae (Coleoptera) of the Indian subregion. Orient Insects 38:1–90

    Google Scholar 

  • Rabinder K, Ramandeep K, Brar KS (2008) Development and predation efficacy of Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) on mealy bug, Phenacoccus solenopsis (Tinsley) under laboratory conditions. J Insect Sci (Ludhiana) 21(1):93–95

    Google Scholar 

  • Reinert JA, Chantos JM, Vinson SB (2009) Susceptibility of bermudagrass, St. Augustinegrass and zoysiagrass to colonization by Rhodesgrass mealybug (Antonina graminis). Int Turfgrass Soc J 11:675–680

    Google Scholar 

  • Roda A, Millar JG, Rascoe J, Weihman S, Stocks I (2012) Developing detection and monitoring strategies for Planococcus minor (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). J Econ Entomol 105(6):2052–2061

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roivainen O (1976) Transmission of cocoa viruses by mealy bugs (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). J Sci Agric Soc Finland 48:433–453

    Google Scholar 

  • Ronald A, Heu MT, Fukada PC (2007) Papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). New Pest Advisory. http://www.hawaiiag.org/hdoa/npa/npa04-03-PMB.pdf

  • Rotundo G, Tremblay E (1982) Preliminary report on the attractivity of the synthetic pheromone of Planococcus citri (Rs.) (Homoptera: Coccoidea) in comparison to virgin females. Bollettinodel Laboratorio di Entomologia Agraria Filippo Silvestri 39:97–101

    Google Scholar 

  • Saengyot S, Burikam I (2011) Host Plants and Natural Enemies of Papaya Mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus Williams & Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in Thailand. Thai J Agric Sci 44(3):197–205

    Google Scholar 

  • Sanderson JP, Roush RT (1992) Monitoring resistance in greenhouse whitefly (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) with yellow sticky cards. J Econ Entomol 85:634–641

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sayyed AH, Attique MNR, Khaliq A (2005) Stability of field selected resistance to insecticides in Plutella xylostella (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) from Pakistan. J Appl Entomol 129:541–547

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sazo L, Pizarro E, Araya JE (2006) Effect of the form of application of imidacloprid on control of the long tailed mealybug, Pseudococcus longispinus (Targioni&Tozzetti) on avocado and its impact on Neoseiulus californicus (McGregor) in Chile. Boletin de Sanidad Vegetal Plagas, 32:483–490

    Google Scholar 

  • Selvarajan R, Balasubramanian V, Padmanaban B, Sathaimoorthy S (2006) Vector transmission of banana bract mosaic and banana streak viruses in India. In: Proceeding of “International symposium on management of vector-borne viruses” ICRISAT, Hyderabad, 7–10 Feb 2006, p 110

    Google Scholar 

  • Sether DM, Melzer MJ, Busto J, Zee F, Hu JS (2005) Diversity and mealybug transmissibility of ampelo viruses in pineapple. Plant Dis 89:450–456

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sforza R (2008) Les cochenillessur la vigne. In: Les ravageurs de la vigne. EdsFeret, Bordeaux, pp 188–210

    Google Scholar 

  • Shafqat S, Munir A, Mushtaq A, Kwon YJ (2007) Insecticidal control of the mealybug Phenacoccus gossypiphilous (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), a new pest of cotton in Pakistan. Entomol Res 37:76–80

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sharma SS (2007) Aenasius sp. nov. effective parasitoid of mealy bug (Phenacoccus solenopsis) on okra. Haryana J Hortic Sci 36(3/4):412

    Google Scholar 

  • Shylesha AN, Joshi S, Rabindra RJ, Shekhar MA, Kumar N, Dhanyavathi PN, Shivaraju C (2011a) A successful case study of classical biological control of papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus. In: National symposium on harnessing Biodiversity for biological control of crop pests – abstracts, NBAII, Bangalore, p 99

    Google Scholar 

  • Shylesha, A. N., Rabindra, R. J. & Bhumannavar, B. S. (2011b). The papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus (Coccoidea:Pseudococcidae). Proceedings of the National consultation meeting on strategies for deployment and impact of the imported parasitoids of papaya mealybug classical biological control of papaya mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus) in India, p 1–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh SP (2004) Some success stories of classical biological control of agricultural pests in India. Asia-specific Association of Agricultural Institutions, FAO Regional office for ASIA and the Pacific. APAARI Publication 2004/2, Bangkok, Thailand, p 73

    Google Scholar 

  • Solangi GS, Lohar MK, Abro GH, Buriro AS (2012) Biology and release of exotic predator Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant on mealybug Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley at Tandojam. Sarhad J Agric 28:429–435

    Google Scholar 

  • Streito JC, Martinez M (2005) Nouveaux ravageurs, 41 especesdepuis 2000. Phytoma La Défense des végétaux 586:16–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Sugie H, Teshiba M, Narai Y, Tsutsumi T, Sawamura N, Tabata J, Hiradate S (2008) Identification of a sex pheromone component of the Japanese mealybug, Planococcus kraunhiae (Kuwana). Appl Entomol Zool 43(3):369–375

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan NJ, Butler RC, Salehi L, Twidle AM, Baker G, Suckling DM (2019) Deployment of the sex pheromone of Pseudococcus calceolariae (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) as a potential new tool for mass trapping in citrus in South Australia. N Z Entomol 42(1):1–12

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tabata J (2013) A convenient route for synthesis of 2-isopropyliden-5-methyl-4-hexen-1-yl butyrate, the sex pheromone of Planococcus kraunhiae (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), by use of β, γ to α, β double-bond migration in an unsaturated aldehyde. Appl Entomol Zool 48(2):229–232

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tabata J, Ichiki RT (2016) Sex pheromone of the cotton mealybug, Phenacoccus solenopsis, with an unusual cyclobutane structure. J Chem Ecol 42:1193–1200

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tabata J, Ichiki RT (2017) (1S, 3R)-cis-Chrysanthemyl tiglate: sex pheromone of the striped mealybug, Ferrisia virgata. J Chem Ecol 43(8):745–752

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tabata J, Narai Y, Sawamura N, Hiradate S, Sugie H (2012) A new class of mealybug pheromones: a hemiterpene ester in the sex pheromone of Crisicoccus matsumotoi. Naturwissenschaften 99(7):567–574

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tabata J, Teshiba M, Shimizu N, Sugie H (2015) Mealybug mating disruption by a sex pheromone derived from lavender essential oil. J Essent Oil Res 27(3):232–237

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tanwar RK, Jeyakumar P, Vennila S (2010) Technical bulletin 22. National Centre for Integrated Pest Management, New Delhi

    Google Scholar 

  • Terra WR, Ferreira C (2003) Digestive system. In: Resh VH, Carde RT (eds) Encyclopedia of insects. Academic, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Thao ML, Gullan PJ, Baumann P (2002) Secondary (gamma-proteobacteria) endosymbionts infect the primary (beta-proteobacteria) endosymbionts of mealybugs multiple times and coevolve with their hosts. Appl Environ Microbiol 68:3190–3197

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tinsley JD (1898) Notes on Coccidae, with descriptions of new species. Can Entomol 30:317–320

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tobih FO, Omoloye AA, Ivbijaro MF, Enobakhare DA (2002) Effects if field infestation by Rastrococcus invadens Williams (Hemiptera; Pseudococcidae) on the morphology and nutritional status of mango fruits Mangifera indica. Crop Prot 21:751–761

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Unelius CR, El-Sayed AM, Twidle A, Bunn B, Zaviezo T, Flores MF, Bell V, Bergmann J (2011) The absolute configuration of the sex pheromone of the citrophilous mealybug, Pseudococcus calceolariae. J Chem Ecol 37(2):166–172

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vitullo J, Wang S, Zhang A, Mannion C, Christopher Bergh J (2014) Comparison of sex pheromone traps for monitoring pink hibiscus mealybug (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). J Econ Entomol 100(2):405–410

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • von Dohlen CD, Kohler S, Alsop ST, McManus WR (2001) Mealybug beta-proteobacterial endosymbionts contain gamma-proteobacterial symbionts. Nature 412:433–436

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wabale AS, Jadhav VG, Vane AD, Nale BV (2010) Efficacy of Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delli leaf extracts against mealybug Ferrisia virgata (Ckll.). Asian J Exp Biol Sci 112–114

    Google Scholar 

  • Walton VM, Daane KM, Pringle KL (2004) Monitoring Planococcus ficus in South African vineyards with sex pheromone-baited traps. Crop Prot 23:1089–1096

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walton VM, Daane KM, Walter J, Bentley WJ, Millar JG, Larsen TE, Malakarkuenen R (2006) Pheromone-based mating disruption of Planococcus ficus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in California Vineyards. J Econ Entomol 99:1280–1290

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walton VM, Dalton DT, Daane KM, Kaiser C, Hilton RJ (2013) Seasonal phenology of Pseudococcus maritimus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) and pheromone-baited trap survey of four important mealybug species in three wine grape growing regions of Oregon. Ann Entomol Soc Am 106(4):471–478

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waterworth RA, Redak RA, Millar JG (2012) Probable Site of Sex Pheromone Emission in Female Vine and Obscure Mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). J Insect Behav 25(3):287–296

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitacker RH, Feeny RP (1971) Allelochemics: chemical interaction between species. Science 171:757–770

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams DJ, de Willink MCG (1992) Mealybugs of Central and South America. CAB International, Wallingford, 635 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Zada A, Dunkelblum E, Assael F, Harel M, Cojocaru M, Mendel Z, Pellizzari G (2001) Identification of a second sex pheromone component of the vine mealybug. Boll Zool Agrar Bach 33(275):281

    Google Scholar 

  • Zada A, Dunkelblum E, Assael F, Harel M, Cojocaru M, Mendel Z (2003) Sex pheromone of the vine mealybug, Planococcus ficus in Israel: occurrence of a second component in a mass-reared population. J Chem Ecol 29:977–988

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zeddies J, Schaab RP, Neuenschwander P, Herren HR (2001) Economics of biological control of cassava mealybug in Africa. Agric Econ 24:209–219

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang A, Amalin D (2005) Sex pheromone of the female pink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae): biological activity evaluation. Environ Entomol 34(2):264–270

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang A, Amalin D, Shirali S, Serrano MS, Franqui RA, Oliver JE, Klun JA, Aldrich JR, Meyerdirk DE, Lapointe SL (2004) Sex pheromone of the pink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus, contains an unusual cyclobutanoid monoterpene. Proc Natl Acad Sci 101(26):9601–9606

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to the support provided by ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, for writing of this review.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. ICAR – Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India

    S. Subramanian & Suresh M. Nebapure

  2. ICAR – National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, India

    T. Boopathi

  3. ICAR – National Institute of Biotic Stress Management, Raipur, India

    Yogesh Yele

  4. ICAR – CICR, Regional Station, Coimbatore, India

    K. Shankarganesh

Authors
  1. S. Subramanian
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. T. Boopathi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Suresh M. Nebapure
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Yogesh Yele
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. K. Shankarganesh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

    Omkar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Subramanian, S., Boopathi, T., Nebapure, S.M., Yele, Y., Shankarganesh, K. (2021). Mealybugs. In: Omkar (eds) Polyphagous Pests of Crops. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8075-8_5

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation