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Development of the Airways and the Vasculature in the Lungs of Birds

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The Biology of the Avian Respiratory System

Abstract

Generally, the vertebrate lung has its origin from the endoderm in the region of the primitive foregut, where the epithelium gives rise to the airway system and the gas-exchanging units and the mesenchyme forms the connective tissue, muscles, and vessels. The lung starts as a primordium, which splits into a left and right bud each of which forms the respective lung. In birds, the lung buds form the primary bronchi from which the secondary bronchi (SB) arise. The parabronchi (PB) sprout from the SB and occupy specific locations within the lung. Atria start as excavations with attenuating cells and give rise to infundibula and finally to air capillaries. The mechanisms underlying the formation of the remarkably thin blood–gas barrier (BGB) closely resemble those of exocrine secretion, but occur in a programmed, time-limited manner. In general, they result in cutting or decapitation of the cell until the required thickness is attained. In the first step, the high columnar epithelium undergoes dramatic size reduction and loses morphological polarization by two main processes: secarecytosis (cell decapitation by cutting) and peremerecytosis (cell decapitation by squeezing, spontaneous constriction, or pinching off). Secarecytosis has at least two facets: transcellular double-membrane formation followed by separation between such membranes or cell cutting by vesiculation. Both processes lead to formation of a thin BGB. Blood vessel formation in the avian lung occurs concomitantly with formation of the airway system. There is close interaction between the budding endoderm and the surrounding mesenchyme, where their crosstalk leads to development and differentiation of the components of the functional lung. Blood vessel formation starts with vasculogenesis where blood islands are formed. The islands then form blood vessels that expand further through sprouting, and once a network is established, it is augmented and remodeled through intussusceptive angiogenesis.

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Abbreviations

AC:

Air capillary

BC:

Blood capillary

bFGF:

Basic fibroblast growth factor

BGB:

Blood–gas barrier

BMP-4:

Bone morphogenetic protein-4

FGF:

Fibroblast growth factor

GATA:

GATA transcription factor

HNF-3:

Hepatocyte nuclear factor 3

IA:

Intussusceptive angiogenesis

LD:

Laterodorsal secondary bronchus

MV:

Medioventral secondary bronchi

NPB:

Neopulmonic parabronchi

PB:

Parabronchus

PDGF:

Platelet-derived growth factor

PO:

Posterior secondary bronchi

PPB:

Paleopulmonic parabronchi

SA:

Sprouting angiogenesis

SB:

Secondary bronchus

Shh:

Sonic hedgehog

SMA:

Smooth muscle actin

TFG-β:

Transforming growth factor β

TGF-β1:

Transforming growth factor β1

TTF-1:

Thyroid transcription factor 1

VEGF:

Vascular endothelial growth factor

WNT5a:

Wingless-type 5

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology, University of Nairobi, Riverside Drive, 30197-00100, Nairobi, Kenya

    Andrew N. Makanya

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  1. Andrew N. Makanya
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Correspondence to Andrew N. Makanya .

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Zoology, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa

    John N. Maina

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Makanya, A.N. (2017). Development of the Airways and the Vasculature in the Lungs of Birds. In: Maina, J. (eds) The Biology of the Avian Respiratory System. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-44153-5_6

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