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Radionuclide Therapy of Thyroid Tumors

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Nuclear Oncology

Abstract

When indicated, ablation of postsurgical thyroid remnants with 131I-iodide constitutes a unicum with surgery as the primary form of treatment for differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC) derived from the follicular epithelium. According to the most recent guidelines, thyroid remnant ablation is indicated in DTC patients with a moderate to high risk of recurrence. Patients are prepared with low-iodine diet and with either withdrawal of replacement therapy with L-thyroxine (l-T4) for a period sufficient to achieve serum TSH levels >30 μIU/mL (usually within 4–6 weeks) or administration of exogenous human recombinant (rhTSH). Administered activities of 131I-iodide vary considerably between 1.11 and 3.7 GBq (30–100 mCi), according to the estimated risk of recurrence. A whole-body scan (131I-WBS, preferably completed with SPECT/CT acquisitions at selected sites) is performed 4–7 days after 131I-iodide administration, as it can detect lymph node involvement or unexpected metastases. Therapy with 131I-iodide causes in some instances side effects that are usually mild, transient, and well manageable. More important side effects (e.g., a radiation-induced second malignancy) can be expected only after repeated administrations of radioiodide for therapy of recurrent metastatic disease and for very high cumulative doses.

The major diagnostic modalities employed to follow patients with DTC treated with remnant ablation are measurement of serum Tg, 131I-WBS, and neck US. Additional diagnostic imaging (e.g., CT, MRI) is applicable in selected circumstances; in fact, although CT and MRI can in principle localize very small lesions in the neck, chest, and bones, the features of such lesions are rarely specific for recurrent/metastatic DTC.

If lymph node metastasis is suspected on the basis of imaging findings, a FNAC should be performed, also assaying Tg in the needle washing. Serum Tg levels that become detectable or show an increasing trend during follow-up indicate the need for further evaluation, possibly with additional 131I-iodide therapy in case of small metastatic lesions (<1 cm in size) with a relatively high radioiodine uptake. In case of bigger lymph node metastasis, surgery is preferable – possibly followed by adjuvant radioiodine therapy. External beam radiation therapy (EBRT) has little role in treatment of recurrent/metastatic DTC, except in case of tumors exhibiting a trend to dedifferentiation. Patients with recurrent DTC may develop poorly differentiated lesions that cannot concentrate radioiodide. In these patients [18F]FDG PET/CT has an important prognostic role and is useful to determine the sites and extent of these metastases. When DTC becomes refractory to 131I-iodide therapy, metastatic and progressive lesions can be treated with tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI) such as sorafenib and lenvatinib.

Radionuclide therapy has no role in the treatment of anaplastic or poorly differentiated thyroid cancers, because these tumors cannot concentrate radioiodide; in these patients therapy is based on surgery (whenever possible – also with simple debulking/palliative purposes), chemotherapy, and EBRT. Prognosis of these patients is very poor.

Surgery is the first-choice option for the treatment of patients with medullary thyroid cancer (MTC). Follow-up is based on monitoring of biochemical tumor recurrence (rising serum calcitonin and/or CEA levels) and on diagnostic imaging with radiopharmaceuticals that are commonly used for the whole spectrum of neuroendocrine tumors: 123I-MIBG, radiolabeled somatostatin analogs (111In-DTPA-pentetreotide, 68Ga-DOTA-NOC/TATE) in addition to the overall tumor-imaging agent [18F]FDG. Radionuclide therapy of recurrent/metastatic DTC can include 131I-MIBG and 90Y- or 177Lu-DOTA-TOC/NOC/TATE. As in the case of radioiodide-refractory DTC, treatment of advanced recurrent/metastatic MTC can include novel targeted therapies such as TKIs.

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Abbreviations

[18F]FDG:

2-Deoxy-2-[18F]fluoro-d-glucose

123I-MIBG:

123I-meta-Iodobenzylguanidine

131I-MIBG:

131I-meta-Iodobenzylguanidine

131I-WBS:

Whole-body scintigraphy with 131I-iodide

18F-DOPA:

2-18F-Fluoro-l-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine

AJCC:

American Joint Committee on Cancer

APUD:

Amine precursor uptake and decarboxylation

ATA:

American Thyroid Association

ATC:

Anaplastic thyroid cancer

BRAF:

Gene encoding for the B-Raf protein, a serine/threonine-protein kinase; the gene is also known as the proto-oncogene B-Raf and v-Raf murine sarcoma viral oncogene homolog B

CCK-BR:

Gastrin/cholecystokinin B receptor

CEA:

Carcinoembryonic antigen, a tumor-associated serum marker

CP:

Chemotherapy based on carboplatinum and plaxitaxel

Ct:

Calcitonin

CT:

X-ray computed tomography

DMSA:

Dimercaptosuccinic acid, a metal-chelating agent

DOTA-NOC:

DOTA-1-Nal3-octreotide

DOTA-TATE:

DOTA-Tyr3-octreotate

DOTA-TOC:

DOTA-octreotide

DOTA:

1,4,7,10-Tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid

DTC:

Well-differentiated thyroid cancer

DTPA:

Diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid, a metal-chelating agent

EBRT:

External beam radiation therapy

EGF:

Epidermal growth factor

EGFR:

Epidermal growth factor receptor; the mutated form EGFRvIII plays a prominent role in tumorigenesis and proangiogenic signalling

EMA:

European Medicines Agency

FDA:

United States Food and Drug Administration

FNAC:

Fine-needle aspiration cytology

FT3:

Free circulating form of the thyroid hormone triiodothyronine

FT4:

Free circulating form of the thyroid hormone tetraiodothyronine

FTC:

Follicular thyroid tumor

Gy:

Gray unit (ionizing radiation dose in the International System of Units, corresponding to the absorption of one joule of radiation energy per kilogram of matter)

l-T4:

Levo-thyroxine (or tetra-iodothyronine)

M:

Metastasis status according to the AJCC/UICC TNM staging system

MEK:

Mitogen-activated protein kinase

MEN:

Multiple endocrine neoplasia

MIBG:

meta-Iodobenzylguanidine

MRI:

Magnetic resonance imaging

MTC:

Medullary thyroid cancer

N:

Lymph node status according to the AJCC/UICC TNM staging system

NIS:

Na+/I− symporter

ORR:

Overall response rate

PDGFRα:

Platelet-derived growth factor receptor α

PDTC:

Poorly differentiated thyroid cancer

PET:

Positron emission tomography

PET/CT:

Positron emission tomography/Computed tomography

PFS:

Progression-free survival

PTC:

Papillary thyroid tumor

RECIST:

Response evaluation criteria in solid tumors

RET:

A proto-oncogene encoding for a receptor tyrosine kinase for extracellular signalling molecules (from “rearranged during transfection”)

rhTSH:

Recombinant human TSH

RT-PCR:

Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction

SPECT:

Single-photon emission tomography

SPECT/CT:

Single-photon emission tomography/Computed tomography

T:

Tumor status according to the AJCC/UICC TNM staging system

T3:

Triiodothyronine

Tg:

Thyroglobulin

TgAb:

Anti-Tg autoantibodies

TKI:

Thymidine kinase inhibitor

TNM:

AJCC/UICC staging system based on parameters “T” (tumor status), “N” (lymph node status), and “M” (distant metastasis status)

TSH:

Thyroid stimulating hormone, or thyrotropin

UICC:

Union Internationale Contre le Cancer (International Union Against Cancer)

US:

Ultrasonography

VEGF:

Vascular endothelial growth factor

VEGFR:

Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor

WBS:

Whole-body scintigraphy

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Endocrine Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Via Paradisa 1, 56100, Pisa, Italy

    Rossella Elisei, Laura Agate, Valeria Bottici & Eleonora Molinaro

  2. Regional Center of Nuclear Medicine, Department of Translational Research and Advanced Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy

    Sara Mazzarri, Federica Guidoccio, Giuseppe Boni & Giuliano Mariani

  3. Nuclear Medicine Unit, Department of Diagnostics and Public Health, University of Verona, Verona, Italy

    Marco Ferdeghini

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  1. Rossella Elisei
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  9. Giuliano Mariani
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Correspondence to Rossella Elisei .

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  1. Molecular Imaging and Therapy Service, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, USA

    H. William Strauss

  2. University of Pisa, Regional Center of Nuclear Medicine, Pisa, Italy

    Giuliano Mariani

  3. University of Pisa, Regional Center of Nuclear Medicine, Pisa, Italy

    Duccio Volterrani

  4. Molecular Imaging and Therapy Service, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, USA

    Steven M. Larson

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Elisei, R. et al. (2017). Radionuclide Therapy of Thyroid Tumors. In: Strauss, H., Mariani, G., Volterrani, D., Larson, S. (eds) Nuclear Oncology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-26236-9_49

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